arrow_ord/

sort.rs

// Licensed to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) under one
// or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
// distributed with this work for additional information
// regarding copyright ownership.  The ASF licenses this file
// to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the
// "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance
// with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
//
//   http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
//
// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing,
// software distributed under the License is distributed on an
// "AS IS" BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY
// KIND, either express or implied.  See the License for the
// specific language governing permissions and limitations
// under the License.

//! Defines sort kernel for `ArrayRef`

use crate::ord::{DynComparator, make_comparator};
use arrow_array::builder::BufferBuilder;
use arrow_array::cast::*;
use arrow_array::types::*;
use arrow_array::*;
use arrow_buffer::ArrowNativeType;
use arrow_buffer::BooleanBufferBuilder;
use arrow_data::{ArrayDataBuilder, ByteView, MAX_INLINE_VIEW_LEN};
use arrow_schema::{ArrowError, DataType};
use arrow_select::take::take;
use std::cmp::Ordering;
use std::sync::Arc;

use crate::rank::{can_rank, rank};
pub use arrow_schema::SortOptions;

/// Sort the `ArrayRef` using `SortOptions`.
///
/// Performs a sort on values and indices. Nulls are ordered according
/// to the `nulls_first` flag in `options`.  Floats are sorted using
/// IEEE 754 totalOrder
///
/// Returns an `ArrowError::ComputeError(String)` if the array type is
/// either unsupported by `sort_to_indices` or `take`.
///
/// Note: this is an unstable_sort, meaning it may not preserve the
/// order of equal elements.
///
/// # Example
/// ```rust
/// # use std::sync::Arc;
/// # use arrow_array::Int32Array;
/// # use arrow_ord::sort::sort;
/// let array = Int32Array::from(vec![5, 4, 3, 2, 1]);
/// let sorted_array = sort(&array, None).unwrap();
/// assert_eq!(sorted_array.as_ref(), &Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5]));
/// ```
pub fn sort(values: &dyn Array, options: Option<SortOptions>) -> Result<ArrayRef, ArrowError> {
    downcast_primitive_array!(
        values => sort_native_type(values, options),
        DataType::RunEndEncoded(_, _) => sort_run(values, options, None),
        _ => {
            let indices = sort_to_indices(values, options, None)?;
            take(values, &indices, None)
        }
    )
}

fn sort_native_type<T>(
    primitive_values: &PrimitiveArray<T>,
    options: Option<SortOptions>,
) -> Result<ArrayRef, ArrowError>
where
    T: ArrowPrimitiveType,
{
    let sort_options = options.unwrap_or_default();

    let mut mutable_buffer = vec![T::default_value(); primitive_values.len()];
    let mutable_slice = &mut mutable_buffer;

    let input_values = primitive_values.values().as_ref();

    let nulls_count = primitive_values.null_count();
    let valid_count = primitive_values.len() - nulls_count;

    let null_bit_buffer = match nulls_count > 0 {
        true => {
            let mut validity_buffer = BooleanBufferBuilder::new(primitive_values.len());
            if sort_options.nulls_first {
                validity_buffer.append_n(nulls_count, false);
                validity_buffer.append_n(valid_count, true);
            } else {
                validity_buffer.append_n(valid_count, true);
                validity_buffer.append_n(nulls_count, false);
            }
            Some(validity_buffer.finish().into())
        }
        false => None,
    };

    if let Some(nulls) = primitive_values.nulls().filter(|n| n.null_count() > 0) {
        let values_slice = match sort_options.nulls_first {
            true => &mut mutable_slice[nulls_count..],
            false => &mut mutable_slice[..valid_count],
        };

        for (write_index, index) in nulls.valid_indices().enumerate() {
            values_slice[write_index] = primitive_values.value(index);
        }

        values_slice.sort_unstable_by(|a, b| a.compare(*b));
        if sort_options.descending {
            values_slice.reverse();
        }
    } else {
        mutable_slice.copy_from_slice(input_values);
        mutable_slice.sort_unstable_by(|a, b| a.compare(*b));
        if sort_options.descending {
            mutable_slice.reverse();
        }
    }

    Ok(Arc::new(
        PrimitiveArray::<T>::try_new(mutable_buffer.into(), null_bit_buffer)?
            .with_data_type(primitive_values.data_type().clone()),
    ))
}

/// Sort the `ArrayRef` partially.
///
/// If `limit` is specified, the resulting array will contain only
/// first `limit` in the sort order. Any data data after the limit
/// will be discarded.
///
/// Note: this is an unstable_sort, meaning it may not preserve the
/// order of equal elements.
///
/// # Example
/// ```rust
/// # use std::sync::Arc;
/// # use arrow_array::Int32Array;
/// # use arrow_ord::sort::{sort_limit, SortOptions};
/// let array = Int32Array::from(vec![5, 4, 3, 2, 1]);
///
/// // Find the the top 2 items
/// let sorted_array = sort_limit(&array, None, Some(2)).unwrap();
/// assert_eq!(sorted_array.as_ref(), &Int32Array::from(vec![1, 2]));
///
/// // Find the bottom top 2 items
/// let options = Some(SortOptions {
///                  descending: true,
///                  ..Default::default()
///               });
/// let sorted_array = sort_limit(&array, options, Some(2)).unwrap();
/// assert_eq!(sorted_array.as_ref(), &Int32Array::from(vec![5, 4]));
/// ```
pub fn sort_limit(
    values: &dyn Array,
    options: Option<SortOptions>,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> Result<ArrayRef, ArrowError> {
    if let DataType::RunEndEncoded(_, _) = values.data_type() {
        return sort_run(values, options, limit);
    }
    let indices = sort_to_indices(values, options, limit)?;
    take(values, &indices, None)
}

/// we can only do this if the T is primitive
#[inline]
fn sort_unstable_by<T, F>(array: &mut [T], limit: usize, cmp: F)
where
    F: FnMut(&T, &T) -> Ordering,
{
    if array.len() == limit {
        array.sort_unstable_by(cmp);
    } else {
        partial_sort(array, limit, cmp);
    }
}

/// Partition indices of an Arrow array into two categories:
/// - `valid`: indices of non-null elements
/// - `nulls`: indices of null elements
///
/// Optimized for performance with fast-path for all-valid arrays
/// and bit-parallel scan for null-containing arrays.
#[inline(always)]
pub fn partition_validity(array: &dyn Array) -> (Vec<u32>, Vec<u32>) {
    let len = array.len();
    let null_count = array.null_count();

    // Fast path: if there are no nulls, all elements are valid
    if null_count == 0 {
        // Simply return a range of indices [0, len)
        let valid = (0..len as u32).collect();
        return (valid, Vec::new());
    }

    // null bitmap exists and some values are null
    partition_validity_scan(array, len, null_count)
}

/// Scans the null bitmap and partitions valid/null indices efficiently.
/// Uses bit-level operations to extract bit positions.
/// This function is only called when nulls exist.
#[inline(always)]
fn partition_validity_scan(
    array: &dyn Array,
    len: usize,
    null_count: usize,
) -> (Vec<u32>, Vec<u32>) {
    // SAFETY: Guaranteed by caller that null_count > 0, so bitmap must exist
    let bitmap = array.nulls().unwrap();

    // Preallocate result vectors with exact capacities (avoids reallocations)
    let mut valid = Vec::with_capacity(len - null_count);
    let mut nulls = Vec::with_capacity(null_count);

    unsafe {
        // 1) Write valid indices (bits == 1)
        let valid_slice = valid.spare_capacity_mut();
        for (i, idx) in bitmap.inner().set_indices_u32().enumerate() {
            valid_slice[i].write(idx);
        }

        // 2) Write null indices by inverting
        let inv_buf = !bitmap.inner();
        let null_slice = nulls.spare_capacity_mut();
        for (i, idx) in inv_buf.set_indices_u32().enumerate() {
            null_slice[i].write(idx);
        }

        // Finalize lengths
        valid.set_len(len - null_count);
        nulls.set_len(null_count);
    }

    assert_eq!(valid.len(), len - null_count);
    assert_eq!(nulls.len(), null_count);
    (valid, nulls)
}

/// Whether `sort_to_indices` can sort an array of given data type.
fn can_sort_to_indices(data_type: &DataType) -> bool {
    data_type.is_primitive()
        || matches!(
            data_type,
            DataType::Boolean
                | DataType::Utf8
                | DataType::LargeUtf8
                | DataType::Utf8View
                | DataType::Binary
                | DataType::LargeBinary
                | DataType::BinaryView
                | DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_)
        )
        || match data_type {
            DataType::List(f) if can_rank(f.data_type()) => true,
            DataType::LargeList(f) if can_rank(f.data_type()) => true,
            DataType::FixedSizeList(f, _) if can_rank(f.data_type()) => true,
            DataType::Dictionary(_, values) if can_rank(values.as_ref()) => true,
            DataType::RunEndEncoded(_, f) if can_sort_to_indices(f.data_type()) => true,
            _ => false,
        }
}

/// Sort elements from `ArrayRef` into an unsigned integer (`UInt32Array`) of indices.
/// Floats are sorted using IEEE 754 totalOrder.  `limit` is an option for [partial_sort].
pub fn sort_to_indices(
    array: &dyn Array,
    options: Option<SortOptions>,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> Result<UInt32Array, ArrowError> {
    let options = options.unwrap_or_default();

    let (v, n) = partition_validity(array);

    Ok(downcast_primitive_array! {
        array => sort_primitive(array, v, n, options, limit),
        DataType::Boolean => sort_boolean(array.as_boolean(), v, n, options, limit),
        DataType::Utf8 => sort_bytes(array.as_string::<i32>(), v, n, options, limit),
        DataType::LargeUtf8 => sort_bytes(array.as_string::<i64>(), v, n, options, limit),
        DataType::Utf8View => sort_byte_view(array.as_string_view(), v, n, options, limit),
        DataType::Binary => sort_bytes(array.as_binary::<i32>(), v, n, options, limit),
        DataType::LargeBinary => sort_bytes(array.as_binary::<i64>(), v, n, options, limit),
        DataType::BinaryView => sort_byte_view(array.as_binary_view(), v, n, options, limit),
        DataType::FixedSizeBinary(_) => sort_fixed_size_binary(array.as_fixed_size_binary(), v, n, options, limit),
        DataType::List(_) => sort_list(array.as_list::<i32>(), v, n, options, limit)?,
        DataType::LargeList(_) => sort_list(array.as_list::<i64>(), v, n, options, limit)?,
        DataType::FixedSizeList(_, _) => sort_fixed_size_list(array.as_fixed_size_list(), v, n, options, limit)?,
        DataType::Dictionary(_, _) => downcast_dictionary_array!{
            array => sort_dictionary(array, v, n, options, limit)?,
            _ => unreachable!()
        }
        DataType::RunEndEncoded(run_ends_field, _) => match run_ends_field.data_type() {
            DataType::Int16 => sort_run_to_indices::<Int16Type>(array, options, limit),
            DataType::Int32 => sort_run_to_indices::<Int32Type>(array, options, limit),
            DataType::Int64 => sort_run_to_indices::<Int64Type>(array, options, limit),
            dt => {
                return Err(ArrowError::ComputeError(format!(
                    "Invalid run end data type: {dt}"
                )))
            }
        },
        t => {
            return Err(ArrowError::ComputeError(format!(
                "Sort not supported for data type {t}"
            )));
        }
    })
}

fn sort_boolean(
    values: &BooleanArray,
    value_indices: Vec<u32>,
    null_indices: Vec<u32>,
    options: SortOptions,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> UInt32Array {
    let mut valids = value_indices
        .into_iter()
        .map(|index| (index, values.value(index as usize)))
        .collect::<Vec<(u32, bool)>>();
    sort_impl(options, &mut valids, &null_indices, limit, |a, b| a.cmp(&b)).into()
}

fn sort_primitive<T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
    values: &PrimitiveArray<T>,
    value_indices: Vec<u32>,
    nulls: Vec<u32>,
    options: SortOptions,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> UInt32Array {
    let mut valids = value_indices
        .into_iter()
        .map(|index| (index, values.value(index as usize)))
        .collect::<Vec<(u32, T::Native)>>();
    sort_impl(options, &mut valids, &nulls, limit, T::Native::compare).into()
}

fn sort_bytes<T: ByteArrayType>(
    values: &GenericByteArray<T>,
    value_indices: Vec<u32>,
    nulls: Vec<u32>,
    options: SortOptions,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> UInt32Array {
    // Note: Why do we use 4‑byte prefix?
    // Compute the 4‑byte prefix in BE order, or left‑pad if shorter.
    // Most byte‐sequences differ in their first few bytes, so by
    // comparing up to 4 bytes as a single u32 we avoid the overhead
    // of a full lexicographical compare for the vast majority of cases.

    // 1. Build a vector of (index, prefix, length) tuples
    let mut valids: Vec<(u32, u32, u64)> = value_indices
        .into_iter()
        .map(|idx| unsafe {
            let slice: &[u8] = values.value_unchecked(idx as usize).as_ref();
            let len = slice.len() as u64;
            // Compute the 4‑byte prefix in BE order, or left‑pad if shorter
            let prefix = if slice.len() >= 4 {
                let raw = std::ptr::read_unaligned(slice.as_ptr() as *const u32);
                u32::from_be(raw)
            } else if slice.is_empty() {
                // Handle empty slice case to avoid shift overflow
                0u32
            } else {
                let mut v = 0u32;
                for &b in slice {
                    v = (v << 8) | (b as u32);
                }
                // Safe shift: slice.len() is in range [1, 3], so shift is in range [8, 24]
                v << (8 * (4 - slice.len()))
            };
            (idx, prefix, len)
        })
        .collect();

    // 2. compute the number of non-null entries to partially sort
    let vlimit = match (limit, options.nulls_first) {
        (Some(l), true) => l.saturating_sub(nulls.len()).min(valids.len()),
        _ => valids.len(),
    };

    // 3. Comparator: compare prefix, then (when both slices shorter than 4) length, otherwise full slice
    let cmp_bytes = |a: &(u32, u32, u64), b: &(u32, u32, u64)| unsafe {
        let (ia, pa, la) = *a;
        let (ib, pb, lb) = *b;
        // 3.1 prefix (first 4 bytes)
        let ord = pa.cmp(&pb);
        if ord != Ordering::Equal {
            return ord;
        }
        // 3.2 only if both slices had length < 4 (so prefix was padded)
        if la < 4 || lb < 4 {
            let ord = la.cmp(&lb);
            if ord != Ordering::Equal {
                return ord;
            }
        }
        // 3.3 full lexicographical compare
        let a_bytes: &[u8] = values.value_unchecked(ia as usize).as_ref();
        let b_bytes: &[u8] = values.value_unchecked(ib as usize).as_ref();
        a_bytes.cmp(b_bytes)
    };

    // 4. Partially sort according to ascending/descending
    if !options.descending {
        sort_unstable_by(&mut valids, vlimit, cmp_bytes);
    } else {
        sort_unstable_by(&mut valids, vlimit, |x, y| cmp_bytes(x, y).reverse());
    }

    // 5. Assemble nulls and sorted indices into final output
    let total = valids.len() + nulls.len();
    let out_limit = limit.unwrap_or(total).min(total);
    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(out_limit);

    if options.nulls_first {
        out.extend_from_slice(&nulls[..nulls.len().min(out_limit)]);
        let rem = out_limit - out.len();
        out.extend(valids.iter().map(|&(i, _, _)| i).take(rem));
    } else {
        out.extend(valids.iter().map(|&(i, _, _)| i).take(out_limit));
        let rem = out_limit - out.len();
        out.extend_from_slice(&nulls[..rem]);
    }

    out.into()
}

fn sort_byte_view<T: ByteViewType>(
    values: &GenericByteViewArray<T>,
    value_indices: Vec<u32>,
    nulls: Vec<u32>,
    options: SortOptions,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> UInt32Array {
    // 1. Build a list of (index, raw_view, length)
    let mut valids: Vec<_>;
    // 2. Compute the number of non-null entries to partially sort
    let vlimit: usize = match (limit, options.nulls_first) {
        (Some(l), true) => l.saturating_sub(nulls.len()).min(value_indices.len()),
        _ => value_indices.len(),
    };
    // 3.a Check if all views are inline (no data buffers)
    if values.data_buffers().is_empty() {
        valids = value_indices
            .into_iter()
            .map(|idx| {
                // SAFETY: we know idx < values.len()
                let raw = unsafe { *values.views().get_unchecked(idx as usize) };
                let inline_key = GenericByteViewArray::<T>::inline_key_fast(raw);
                (idx, inline_key)
            })
            .collect();
        let cmp_inline = |a: &(u32, u128), b: &(u32, u128)| a.1.cmp(&b.1);

        // Partially sort according to ascending/descending
        if !options.descending {
            sort_unstable_by(&mut valids, vlimit, cmp_inline);
        } else {
            sort_unstable_by(&mut valids, vlimit, |x, y| cmp_inline(x, y).reverse());
        }
    } else {
        valids = value_indices
            .into_iter()
            .map(|idx| {
                // SAFETY: we know idx < values.len()
                let raw = unsafe { *values.views().get_unchecked(idx as usize) };
                (idx, raw)
            })
            .collect();
        // 3.b Mixed comparator: first prefix, then inline vs full comparison
        let cmp_mixed = |a: &(u32, u128), b: &(u32, u128)| {
            let (_, raw_a) = *a;
            let (_, raw_b) = *b;
            let len_a = raw_a as u32;
            let len_b = raw_b as u32;
            // 3.b.1 Both inline (≤12 bytes): compare full 128-bit key including length
            if len_a <= MAX_INLINE_VIEW_LEN && len_b <= MAX_INLINE_VIEW_LEN {
                return GenericByteViewArray::<T>::inline_key_fast(raw_a)
                    .cmp(&GenericByteViewArray::<T>::inline_key_fast(raw_b));
            }

            // 3.b.2 Compare 4-byte prefix in big-endian order
            let pref_a = ByteView::from(raw_a).prefix.swap_bytes();
            let pref_b = ByteView::from(raw_b).prefix.swap_bytes();
            if pref_a != pref_b {
                return pref_a.cmp(&pref_b);
            }

            // 3.b.3 Fallback to full byte-slice comparison
            let full_a: &[u8] = unsafe { values.value_unchecked(a.0 as usize).as_ref() };
            let full_b: &[u8] = unsafe { values.value_unchecked(b.0 as usize).as_ref() };
            full_a.cmp(full_b)
        };

        // 3.b.4 Partially sort according to ascending/descending
        if !options.descending {
            sort_unstable_by(&mut valids, vlimit, cmp_mixed);
        } else {
            sort_unstable_by(&mut valids, vlimit, |x, y| cmp_mixed(x, y).reverse());
        }
    }

    // 5. Assemble nulls and sorted indices into final output
    let total = valids.len() + nulls.len();
    let out_limit = limit.unwrap_or(total).min(total);
    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(total);

    if options.nulls_first {
        // Place null indices first
        out.extend_from_slice(&nulls[..nulls.len().min(out_limit)]);
        let rem = out_limit - out.len();
        out.extend(valids.iter().map(|&(i, _)| i).take(rem));
    } else {
        // Place non-null indices first
        out.extend(valids.iter().map(|&(i, _)| i).take(out_limit));
        let rem = out_limit - out.len();
        out.extend_from_slice(&nulls[..rem]);
    }

    out.into()
}

fn sort_fixed_size_binary(
    values: &FixedSizeBinaryArray,
    value_indices: Vec<u32>,
    nulls: Vec<u32>,
    options: SortOptions,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> UInt32Array {
    let mut valids = value_indices
        .iter()
        .copied()
        .map(|index| (index, values.value(index as usize)))
        .collect::<Vec<(u32, &[u8])>>();
    sort_impl(options, &mut valids, &nulls, limit, Ord::cmp).into()
}

fn sort_dictionary<K: ArrowDictionaryKeyType>(
    dict: &DictionaryArray<K>,
    value_indices: Vec<u32>,
    null_indices: Vec<u32>,
    options: SortOptions,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> Result<UInt32Array, ArrowError> {
    let keys: &PrimitiveArray<K> = dict.keys();
    let rank = child_rank(dict.values().as_ref(), options)?;

    // create tuples that are used for sorting
    let mut valids = value_indices
        .into_iter()
        .map(|index| {
            let key: K::Native = keys.value(index as usize);
            (index, rank[key.as_usize()])
        })
        .collect::<Vec<(u32, u32)>>();

    Ok(sort_impl(options, &mut valids, &null_indices, limit, |a, b| a.cmp(&b)).into())
}

fn sort_list<O: OffsetSizeTrait>(
    array: &GenericListArray<O>,
    value_indices: Vec<u32>,
    null_indices: Vec<u32>,
    options: SortOptions,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> Result<UInt32Array, ArrowError> {
    let rank = child_rank(array.values().as_ref(), options)?;
    let offsets = array.value_offsets();
    let mut valids = value_indices
        .into_iter()
        .map(|index| {
            let end = offsets[index as usize + 1].as_usize();
            let start = offsets[index as usize].as_usize();
            (index, &rank[start..end])
        })
        .collect::<Vec<(u32, &[u32])>>();
    Ok(sort_impl(options, &mut valids, &null_indices, limit, Ord::cmp).into())
}

fn sort_fixed_size_list(
    array: &FixedSizeListArray,
    value_indices: Vec<u32>,
    null_indices: Vec<u32>,
    options: SortOptions,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> Result<UInt32Array, ArrowError> {
    let rank = child_rank(array.values().as_ref(), options)?;
    let size = array.value_length() as usize;
    let mut valids = value_indices
        .into_iter()
        .map(|index| {
            let start = index as usize * size;
            (index, &rank[start..start + size])
        })
        .collect::<Vec<(u32, &[u32])>>();
    Ok(sort_impl(options, &mut valids, &null_indices, limit, Ord::cmp).into())
}

#[inline(never)]
fn sort_impl<T: Copy>(
    options: SortOptions,
    valids: &mut [(u32, T)],
    nulls: &[u32],
    limit: Option<usize>,
    mut cmp: impl FnMut(T, T) -> Ordering,
) -> Vec<u32> {
    let v_limit = match (limit, options.nulls_first) {
        (Some(l), true) => l.saturating_sub(nulls.len()).min(valids.len()),
        _ => valids.len(),
    };

    match options.descending {
        false => sort_unstable_by(valids, v_limit, |a, b| cmp(a.1, b.1)),
        true => sort_unstable_by(valids, v_limit, |a, b| cmp(a.1, b.1).reverse()),
    }

    let len = valids.len() + nulls.len();
    let limit = limit.unwrap_or(len).min(len);
    let mut out = Vec::with_capacity(len);
    match options.nulls_first {
        true => {
            out.extend_from_slice(&nulls[..nulls.len().min(limit)]);
            let remaining = limit - out.len();
            out.extend(valids.iter().map(|x| x.0).take(remaining));
        }
        false => {
            out.extend(valids.iter().map(|x| x.0).take(limit));
            let remaining = limit - out.len();
            out.extend_from_slice(&nulls[..remaining])
        }
    }
    out
}

/// Computes the rank for a set of child values
fn child_rank(values: &dyn Array, options: SortOptions) -> Result<Vec<u32>, ArrowError> {
    // If parent sort order is descending we need to invert the value of nulls_first so that
    // when the parent is sorted based on the produced ranks, nulls are still ordered correctly
    let value_options = Some(SortOptions {
        descending: false,
        nulls_first: options.nulls_first != options.descending,
    });
    rank(values, value_options)
}

// Sort run array and return sorted run array.
// The output RunArray will be encoded at the same level as input run array.
// For e.g. an input RunArray { run_ends = [2,4,6,8], values = [1,2,1,2] }
// will result in output RunArray { run_ends = [2,4,6,8], values = [1,1,2,2] }
// and not RunArray { run_ends = [4,8], values = [1,2] }
fn sort_run(
    values: &dyn Array,
    options: Option<SortOptions>,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> Result<ArrayRef, ArrowError> {
    match values.data_type() {
        DataType::RunEndEncoded(run_ends_field, _) => match run_ends_field.data_type() {
            DataType::Int16 => sort_run_downcasted::<Int16Type>(values, options, limit),
            DataType::Int32 => sort_run_downcasted::<Int32Type>(values, options, limit),
            DataType::Int64 => sort_run_downcasted::<Int64Type>(values, options, limit),
            dt => unreachable!("Not valid run ends data type {dt}"),
        },
        dt => Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(format!(
            "Input is not a run encoded array. Input data type {dt}"
        ))),
    }
}

fn sort_run_downcasted<R: RunEndIndexType>(
    values: &dyn Array,
    options: Option<SortOptions>,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> Result<ArrayRef, ArrowError> {
    let run_array = values.as_any().downcast_ref::<RunArray<R>>().unwrap();

    // Determine the length of output run array.
    let output_len = if let Some(limit) = limit {
        limit.min(run_array.len())
    } else {
        run_array.len()
    };

    let run_ends = run_array.run_ends();

    let mut new_run_ends_builder = BufferBuilder::<R::Native>::new(run_ends.len());
    let mut new_run_end: usize = 0;
    let mut new_physical_len: usize = 0;

    let consume_runs = |run_length, _| {
        new_run_end += run_length;
        new_physical_len += 1;
        new_run_ends_builder.append(R::Native::from_usize(new_run_end).unwrap());
    };

    let (values_indices, run_values) = sort_run_inner(run_array, options, output_len, consume_runs);

    let new_run_ends = unsafe {
        // Safety:
        // The function builds a valid run_ends array and hence need not be validated.
        ArrayDataBuilder::new(R::DATA_TYPE)
            .len(new_physical_len)
            .add_buffer(new_run_ends_builder.finish())
            .build_unchecked()
    };

    // slice the sorted value indices based on limit.
    let new_values_indices: PrimitiveArray<UInt32Type> = values_indices
        .slice(0, new_run_ends.len())
        .into_data()
        .into();

    let new_values = take(&run_values, &new_values_indices, None)?;

    // Build sorted run array
    let builder = ArrayDataBuilder::new(run_array.data_type().clone())
        .len(new_run_end)
        .add_child_data(new_run_ends)
        .add_child_data(new_values.into_data());
    let array_data: RunArray<R> = unsafe {
        // Safety:
        //  This function builds a valid run array and hence can skip validation.
        builder.build_unchecked().into()
    };
    Ok(Arc::new(array_data))
}

// Sort to indices for run encoded array.
// This function will be slow for run array as it decodes the physical indices to
// logical indices and to get the run array back, the logical indices has to be
// encoded back to run array.
fn sort_run_to_indices<R: RunEndIndexType>(
    values: &dyn Array,
    options: SortOptions,
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> UInt32Array {
    let run_array = values.as_any().downcast_ref::<RunArray<R>>().unwrap();
    let output_len = if let Some(limit) = limit {
        limit.min(run_array.len())
    } else {
        run_array.len()
    };
    let mut result: Vec<u32> = Vec::with_capacity(output_len);

    //Add all logical indices belonging to a physical index to the output
    let consume_runs = |run_length, logical_start| {
        result.extend(logical_start as u32..(logical_start + run_length) as u32);
    };
    sort_run_inner(run_array, Some(options), output_len, consume_runs);

    UInt32Array::from(result)
}

fn sort_run_inner<R: RunEndIndexType, F>(
    run_array: &RunArray<R>,
    options: Option<SortOptions>,
    output_len: usize,
    mut consume_runs: F,
) -> (PrimitiveArray<UInt32Type>, ArrayRef)
where
    F: FnMut(usize, usize),
{
    // slice the run_array.values based on offset and length.
    let start_physical_index = run_array.get_start_physical_index();
    let end_physical_index = run_array.get_end_physical_index();
    let physical_len = end_physical_index - start_physical_index + 1;
    let run_values = run_array.values().slice(start_physical_index, physical_len);

    // All the values have to be sorted irrespective of input limit.
    let values_indices = sort_to_indices(&run_values, options, None).unwrap();

    let mut remaining_len = output_len;

    let run_ends = run_array.run_ends().values();

    assert_eq!(
        0,
        values_indices.null_count(),
        "The output of sort_to_indices should not have null values. Its values is {}",
        values_indices.null_count()
    );

    // Calculate `run length` of sorted value indices.
    // Find the `logical index` at which the run starts.
    // Call the consumer using the run length and starting logical index.
    for physical_index in values_indices.values() {
        // As the values were sliced with offset = start_physical_index, it has to be added back
        // before accessing `RunArray::run_ends`
        let physical_index = *physical_index as usize + start_physical_index;

        // calculate the run length and logical index of sorted values
        let (run_length, logical_index_start) = unsafe {
            // Safety:
            // The index will be within bounds as its in bounds of start_physical_index
            // and len, both of which are within bounds of run_array
            if physical_index == start_physical_index {
                (
                    run_ends.get_unchecked(physical_index).as_usize() - run_array.offset(),
                    0,
                )
            } else if physical_index == end_physical_index {
                let prev_run_end = run_ends.get_unchecked(physical_index - 1).as_usize();
                (
                    run_array.offset() + run_array.len() - prev_run_end,
                    prev_run_end - run_array.offset(),
                )
            } else {
                let prev_run_end = run_ends.get_unchecked(physical_index - 1).as_usize();
                (
                    run_ends.get_unchecked(physical_index).as_usize() - prev_run_end,
                    prev_run_end - run_array.offset(),
                )
            }
        };
        let new_run_length = run_length.min(remaining_len);
        consume_runs(new_run_length, logical_index_start);
        remaining_len -= new_run_length;

        if remaining_len == 0 {
            break;
        }
    }

    if remaining_len > 0 {
        panic!("Remaining length should be zero its values is {remaining_len}")
    }
    (values_indices, run_values)
}

/// One column to be used in lexicographical sort
#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
pub struct SortColumn {
    /// The column to sort
    pub values: ArrayRef,
    /// Sort options for this column
    pub options: Option<SortOptions>,
}

/// Sort a list of `ArrayRef` using `SortOptions` provided for each array.
///
/// Performs an unstable lexicographical sort on values and indices.
///
/// Returns an `ArrowError::ComputeError(String)` if any of the array type is either unsupported by
/// `lexsort_to_indices` or `take`.
///
/// # Example:
///
/// ```
/// # use std::convert::From;
/// # use std::sync::Arc;
/// # use arrow_array::{ArrayRef, StringArray, PrimitiveArray};
/// # use arrow_array::types::Int64Type;
/// # use arrow_array::cast::AsArray;
/// # use arrow_ord::sort::{SortColumn, SortOptions, lexsort};
/// let sorted_columns = lexsort(&vec![
///     SortColumn {
///         values: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
///             None,
///             Some(-2),
///             Some(89),
///             Some(-64),
///             Some(101),
///         ])) as ArrayRef,
///         options: None,
///     },
///     SortColumn {
///         values: Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
///             Some("hello"),
///             Some("world"),
///             Some(","),
///             Some("foobar"),
///             Some("!"),
///         ])) as ArrayRef,
///         options: Some(SortOptions {
///             descending: true,
///             nulls_first: false,
///         }),
///     },
/// ], None).unwrap();
///
/// assert_eq!(sorted_columns[0].as_primitive::<Int64Type>().value(1), -64);
/// assert!(sorted_columns[0].is_null(0));
/// ```
///
/// Note: for multi-column sorts without a limit, using the [row format](https://docs.rs/arrow-row/latest/arrow_row/)
/// may be significantly faster
///
pub fn lexsort(columns: &[SortColumn], limit: Option<usize>) -> Result<Vec<ArrayRef>, ArrowError> {
    let indices = lexsort_to_indices(columns, limit)?;
    columns
        .iter()
        .map(|c| take(c.values.as_ref(), &indices, None))
        .collect()
}

/// Sort elements lexicographically from a list of `ArrayRef` into an unsigned integer
/// (`UInt32Array`) of indices.
///
/// Note: for multi-column sorts without a limit, using the [row format](https://docs.rs/arrow-row/latest/arrow_row/)
/// may be significantly faster
pub fn lexsort_to_indices(
    columns: &[SortColumn],
    limit: Option<usize>,
) -> Result<UInt32Array, ArrowError> {
    if columns.is_empty() {
        return Err(ArrowError::InvalidArgumentError(
            "Sort requires at least one column".to_string(),
        ));
    }
    if columns.len() == 1 && can_sort_to_indices(columns[0].values.data_type()) {
        // fallback to non-lexical sort
        let column = &columns[0];
        return sort_to_indices(&column.values, column.options, limit);
    }

    let row_count = columns[0].values.len();
    if columns.iter().any(|item| item.values.len() != row_count) {
        return Err(ArrowError::ComputeError(
            "lexical sort columns have different row counts".to_string(),
        ));
    };

    let mut value_indices = (0..row_count).collect::<Vec<usize>>();
    let mut len = value_indices.len();

    if let Some(limit) = limit {
        len = limit.min(len);
    }

    // Instantiate specialized versions of comparisons for small numbers
    // of columns as it helps the compiler generate better code.
    match columns.len() {
        2 => {
            sort_fixed_column::<2>(columns, &mut value_indices, len)?;
        }
        3 => {
            sort_fixed_column::<3>(columns, &mut value_indices, len)?;
        }
        4 => {
            sort_fixed_column::<4>(columns, &mut value_indices, len)?;
        }
        5 => {
            sort_fixed_column::<5>(columns, &mut value_indices, len)?;
        }
        _ => {
            let lexicographical_comparator = LexicographicalComparator::try_new(columns)?;
            // uint32 can be sorted unstably
            sort_unstable_by(&mut value_indices, len, |a, b| {
                lexicographical_comparator.compare(*a, *b)
            });
        }
    }
    Ok(UInt32Array::from(
        value_indices[..len]
            .iter()
            .map(|i| *i as u32)
            .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
    ))
}

// Sort a fixed number of columns using FixedLexicographicalComparator
fn sort_fixed_column<const N: usize>(
    columns: &[SortColumn],
    value_indices: &mut [usize],
    len: usize,
) -> Result<(), ArrowError> {
    let lexicographical_comparator = FixedLexicographicalComparator::<N>::try_new(columns)?;
    sort_unstable_by(value_indices, len, |a, b| {
        lexicographical_comparator.compare(*a, *b)
    });
    Ok(())
}

/// It's unstable_sort, may not preserve the order of equal elements
pub fn partial_sort<T, F>(v: &mut [T], limit: usize, mut is_less: F)
where
    F: FnMut(&T, &T) -> Ordering,
{
    if let Some(n) = limit.checked_sub(1) {
        let (before, _mid, _after) = v.select_nth_unstable_by(n, &mut is_less);
        before.sort_unstable_by(is_less);
    }
}

/// A lexicographical comparator that wraps given array data (columns) and can lexicographically compare data
/// at given two indices. The lifetime is the same at the data wrapped.
pub struct LexicographicalComparator {
    compare_items: Vec<DynComparator>,
}

impl LexicographicalComparator {
    /// lexicographically compare values at the wrapped columns with given indices.
    pub fn compare(&self, a_idx: usize, b_idx: usize) -> Ordering {
        for comparator in &self.compare_items {
            match comparator(a_idx, b_idx) {
                Ordering::Equal => continue,
                r => return r,
            }
        }
        Ordering::Equal
    }

    /// Create a new lex comparator that will wrap the given sort columns and give comparison
    /// results with two indices.
    pub fn try_new(columns: &[SortColumn]) -> Result<LexicographicalComparator, ArrowError> {
        let compare_items = columns
            .iter()
            .map(|c| {
                make_comparator(
                    c.values.as_ref(),
                    c.values.as_ref(),
                    c.options.unwrap_or_default(),
                )
            })
            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, ArrowError>>()?;
        Ok(LexicographicalComparator { compare_items })
    }
}

/// A lexicographical comparator that wraps given array data (columns) and can lexicographically compare data
/// at given two indices. This version of the comparator is for compile-time constant number of columns.
/// The lifetime is the same at the data wrapped.
pub struct FixedLexicographicalComparator<const N: usize> {
    compare_items: [DynComparator; N],
}

impl<const N: usize> FixedLexicographicalComparator<N> {
    /// lexicographically compare values at the wrapped columns with given indices.
    pub fn compare(&self, a_idx: usize, b_idx: usize) -> Ordering {
        for comparator in &self.compare_items {
            match comparator(a_idx, b_idx) {
                Ordering::Equal => continue,
                r => return r,
            }
        }
        Ordering::Equal
    }

    /// Create a new lex comparator that will wrap the given sort columns and give comparison
    /// results with two indices.
    /// The number of columns should be equal to the compile-time constant N.
    pub fn try_new(
        columns: &[SortColumn],
    ) -> Result<FixedLexicographicalComparator<N>, ArrowError> {
        let compare_items = columns
            .iter()
            .map(|c| {
                make_comparator(
                    c.values.as_ref(),
                    c.values.as_ref(),
                    c.options.unwrap_or_default(),
                )
            })
            .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, ArrowError>>()?
            .try_into();
        let compare_items: [Box<dyn Fn(usize, usize) -> Ordering + Send + Sync + 'static>; N] =
            compare_items.map_err(|_| {
                ArrowError::ComputeError("Could not create fixed size array".to_string())
            })?;
        Ok(FixedLexicographicalComparator { compare_items })
    }
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;
    use arrow_array::builder::{
        BooleanBuilder, FixedSizeListBuilder, GenericListBuilder, Int64Builder, ListBuilder,
        PrimitiveRunBuilder,
    };
    use arrow_buffer::{NullBuffer, i256};
    use arrow_schema::Field;
    use half::f16;
    use rand::rngs::StdRng;
    use rand::seq::SliceRandom;
    use rand::{Rng, RngCore, SeedableRng};

    fn create_decimal_array<T: DecimalType>(
        data: Vec<Option<usize>>,
        precision: u8,
        scale: i8,
    ) -> PrimitiveArray<T> {
        data.into_iter()
            .map(|x| x.and_then(T::Native::from_usize))
            .collect::<PrimitiveArray<T>>()
            .with_precision_and_scale(precision, scale)
            .unwrap()
    }

    fn create_decimal256_array(data: Vec<Option<i256>>) -> Decimal256Array {
        data.into_iter()
            .collect::<Decimal256Array>()
            .with_precision_and_scale(53, 6)
            .unwrap()
    }

    fn test_sort_to_indices_decimal_array<T: DecimalType>(
        data: Vec<Option<usize>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<u32>,
        precision: u8,
        scale: i8,
    ) {
        let output = create_decimal_array::<T>(data, precision, scale);
        let expected = UInt32Array::from(expected_data);
        let output = sort_to_indices(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(output, expected)
    }

    fn test_sort_to_indices_decimal256_array(
        data: Vec<Option<i256>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<u32>,
    ) {
        let output = create_decimal256_array(data);
        let expected = UInt32Array::from(expected_data);
        let output = sort_to_indices(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(output, expected)
    }

    fn test_sort_decimal_array<T: DecimalType>(
        data: Vec<Option<usize>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<Option<usize>>,
        p: u8,
        s: i8,
    ) {
        let output = create_decimal_array::<T>(data, p, s);
        let expected = Arc::new(create_decimal_array::<T>(expected_data, p, s)) as ArrayRef;
        let output = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            _ => sort(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        assert_eq!(&output, &expected)
    }

    fn test_sort_decimal256_array(
        data: Vec<Option<i256>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<Option<i256>>,
    ) {
        let output = create_decimal256_array(data);
        let expected = Arc::new(create_decimal256_array(expected_data)) as ArrayRef;
        let output = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            _ => sort(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        assert_eq!(&output, &expected)
    }

    fn test_sort_to_indices_boolean_arrays(
        data: Vec<Option<bool>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<u32>,
    ) {
        let output = BooleanArray::from(data);
        let expected = UInt32Array::from(expected_data);
        let output = sort_to_indices(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(output, expected)
    }

    fn test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays<T>(
        data: Vec<Option<T::Native>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<u32>,
    ) where
        T: ArrowPrimitiveType,
        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>,
    {
        let output = PrimitiveArray::<T>::from(data);
        let expected = UInt32Array::from(expected_data);
        let output = sort_to_indices(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(output, expected)
    }

    fn test_sort_primitive_arrays<T>(
        data: Vec<Option<T::Native>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<Option<T::Native>>,
    ) where
        T: ArrowPrimitiveType,
        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>,
    {
        let output = PrimitiveArray::<T>::from(data);
        let expected = Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<T>::from(expected_data)) as ArrayRef;
        let output = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            _ => sort(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        assert_eq!(&output, &expected)
    }

    fn test_sort_to_indices_string_arrays(
        data: Vec<Option<&str>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<u32>,
    ) {
        let output = StringArray::from(data);
        let expected = UInt32Array::from(expected_data);
        let output = sort_to_indices(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(output, expected)
    }

    /// Tests both Utf8 and LargeUtf8
    fn test_sort_string_arrays(
        data: Vec<Option<&str>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<Option<&str>>,
    ) {
        let output = StringArray::from(data.clone());
        let expected = Arc::new(StringArray::from(expected_data.clone())) as ArrayRef;
        let output = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            _ => sort(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        assert_eq!(&output, &expected);

        let output = LargeStringArray::from(data.clone());
        let expected = Arc::new(LargeStringArray::from(expected_data.clone())) as ArrayRef;
        let output = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            _ => sort(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        assert_eq!(&output, &expected);

        let output = StringViewArray::from(data);
        let expected = Arc::new(StringViewArray::from(expected_data)) as ArrayRef;
        let output = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            _ => sort(&(Arc::new(output) as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        assert_eq!(&output, &expected);
    }

    fn test_sort_string_dict_arrays<T: ArrowDictionaryKeyType>(
        data: Vec<Option<&str>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<Option<&str>>,
    ) {
        let array = data.into_iter().collect::<DictionaryArray<T>>();
        let array_values = array.values().clone();
        let dict = array_values
            .as_any()
            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
            .expect("Unable to get dictionary values");

        let sorted = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(Arc::new(array) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            _ => sort(&(Arc::new(array) as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        let sorted = sorted
            .as_any()
            .downcast_ref::<DictionaryArray<T>>()
            .unwrap();
        let sorted_values = sorted.values();
        let sorted_dict = sorted_values
            .as_any()
            .downcast_ref::<StringArray>()
            .expect("Unable to get dictionary values");
        let sorted_keys = sorted.keys();

        assert_eq!(sorted_dict, dict);

        let sorted_strings = StringArray::from_iter((0..sorted.len()).map(|i| {
            if sorted.is_valid(i) {
                Some(sorted_dict.value(sorted_keys.value(i).as_usize()))
            } else {
                None
            }
        }));
        let expected = StringArray::from(expected_data);

        assert_eq!(sorted_strings, expected)
    }

    fn test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays<K: ArrowDictionaryKeyType, T: ArrowPrimitiveType>(
        keys: PrimitiveArray<K>,
        values: PrimitiveArray<T>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<Option<T::Native>>,
    ) where
        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>,
    {
        let array = DictionaryArray::<K>::new(keys, Arc::new(values));
        let array_values = array.values().clone();
        let dict = array_values.as_primitive::<T>();

        let sorted = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(Arc::new(array) as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            _ => sort(&(Arc::new(array) as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        let sorted = sorted
            .as_any()
            .downcast_ref::<DictionaryArray<K>>()
            .unwrap();
        let sorted_values = sorted.values();
        let sorted_dict = sorted_values
            .as_any()
            .downcast_ref::<PrimitiveArray<T>>()
            .expect("Unable to get dictionary values");
        let sorted_keys = sorted.keys();

        assert_eq!(sorted_dict, dict);

        let sorted_values: PrimitiveArray<T> = From::<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>::from(
            (0..sorted.len())
                .map(|i| {
                    let key = sorted_keys.value(i).as_usize();
                    if sorted.is_valid(i) && sorted_dict.is_valid(key) {
                        Some(sorted_dict.value(key))
                    } else {
                        None
                    }
                })
                .collect::<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>(),
        );
        let expected: PrimitiveArray<T> = From::<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>::from(expected_data);

        assert_eq!(sorted_values, expected)
    }

    fn test_sort_list_arrays<T>(
        data: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>>,
        fixed_length: Option<i32>,
    ) where
        T: ArrowPrimitiveType,
        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>,
    {
        // for FixedSizedList
        if let Some(length) = fixed_length {
            let input = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<T, _, _>(
                data.clone(),
                length,
            ));
            let sorted = match limit {
                Some(_) => sort_limit(&(input as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
                _ => sort(&(input as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
            };
            let expected = Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<T, _, _>(
                expected_data.clone(),
                length,
            )) as ArrayRef;

            assert_eq!(&sorted, &expected);
        }

        // for List
        let input = Arc::new(ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<T, _, _>(data.clone()));
        let sorted = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(input as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            _ => sort(&(input as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        let expected = Arc::new(ListArray::from_iter_primitive::<T, _, _>(
            expected_data.clone(),
        )) as ArrayRef;

        assert_eq!(&sorted, &expected);

        // for LargeList
        let input = Arc::new(LargeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<T, _, _>(data));
        let sorted = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(input as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            _ => sort(&(input as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        let expected = Arc::new(LargeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<T, _, _>(
            expected_data,
        )) as ArrayRef;

        assert_eq!(&sorted, &expected);
    }

    fn test_lex_sort_arrays(
        input: Vec<SortColumn>,
        expected_output: Vec<ArrayRef>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
    ) {
        let sorted = lexsort(&input, limit).unwrap();

        for (result, expected) in sorted.iter().zip(expected_output.iter()) {
            assert_eq!(result, expected);
        }
    }

    /// slice all arrays in expected_output to offset/length
    fn slice_arrays(expected_output: Vec<ArrayRef>, offset: usize, length: usize) -> Vec<ArrayRef> {
        expected_output
            .into_iter()
            .map(|array| array.slice(offset, length))
            .collect()
    }

    fn test_sort_binary_arrays(
        data: Vec<Option<Vec<u8>>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<Option<Vec<u8>>>,
        fixed_length: Option<i32>,
    ) {
        // Fixed size binary array
        if let Some(length) = fixed_length {
            let input = Arc::new(
                FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_sparse_iter_with_size(data.iter().cloned(), length)
                    .unwrap(),
            );
            let sorted = match limit {
                Some(_) => sort_limit(&(input as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
                None => sort(&(input as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
            };
            let expected = Arc::new(
                FixedSizeBinaryArray::try_from_sparse_iter_with_size(
                    expected_data.iter().cloned(),
                    length,
                )
                .unwrap(),
            ) as ArrayRef;

            assert_eq!(&sorted, &expected);
        }

        // Generic size binary array
        fn make_generic_binary_array<S: OffsetSizeTrait>(
            data: &[Option<Vec<u8>>],
        ) -> Arc<GenericBinaryArray<S>> {
            Arc::new(GenericBinaryArray::<S>::from_opt_vec(
                data.iter()
                    .map(|binary| binary.as_ref().map(Vec::as_slice))
                    .collect(),
            ))
        }

        // BinaryArray
        let input = make_generic_binary_array::<i32>(&data);
        let sorted = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(input as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            None => sort(&(input as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        let expected = make_generic_binary_array::<i32>(&expected_data) as ArrayRef;
        assert_eq!(&sorted, &expected);

        // LargeBinaryArray
        let input = make_generic_binary_array::<i64>(&data);
        let sorted = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(input as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            None => sort(&(input as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        let expected = make_generic_binary_array::<i64>(&expected_data) as ArrayRef;
        assert_eq!(&sorted, &expected);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_to_indices_primitives() {
        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int8Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            None,
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 3, 1, 4, 2],
        );
        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            None,
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 3, 1, 4, 2],
        );
        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            None,
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 3, 1, 4, 2],
        );
        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int64Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            None,
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 3, 1, 4, 2],
        );
        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float16Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(f16::from_f32(-0.05)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(2.225)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(-1.01)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(-0.05)),
                None,
            ],
            None,
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 3, 1, 4, 2],
        );
        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float32Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(-0.05),
                Some(2.225),
                Some(-1.01),
                Some(-0.05),
                None,
            ],
            None,
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 3, 1, 4, 2],
        );
        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(-0.05),
                Some(2.225),
                Some(-1.01),
                Some(-0.05),
                None,
            ],
            None,
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 3, 1, 4, 2],
        );

        // descending
        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int8Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![2, 1, 4, 3, 0, 5],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![2, 1, 4, 3, 0, 5],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![2, 1, 4, 3, 0, 5],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int64Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![2, 1, 4, 3, 0, 5],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float16Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.005)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(20.22)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(-10.3)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.005)),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![2, 1, 4, 3, 0, 5],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float32Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(0.005),
                Some(20.22),
                Some(-10.3),
                Some(0.005),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![2, 1, 4, 3, 0, 5],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0.0), Some(2.0), Some(-1.0), Some(0.0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![2, 1, 4, 3, 0, 5],
        );

        // descending, nulls first
        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int8Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 2, 1, 4, 3], // [5, 0, 2, 4, 1, 3]
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 2, 1, 4, 3], // [5, 0, 2, 4, 1, 3]
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 2, 1, 4, 3],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int64Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 2, 1, 4, 3],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float16Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.1)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.2)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(-1.3)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.01)),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 2, 1, 4, 3],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float32Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0.1), Some(0.2), Some(-1.3), Some(0.01), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 2, 1, 4, 3],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![None, Some(10.1), Some(100.2), Some(-1.3), Some(10.01), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 2, 1, 4, 3],
        );

        // valid values less than limit with extra nulls
        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![Some(2.0), None, None, Some(1.0)],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![3, 0, 1],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![Some(2.0), None, None, Some(1.0)],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![1, 2, 3],
        );

        // more nulls than limit
        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![Some(1.0), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![1, 2],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![Some(1.0), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![0, 1],
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_to_indices_primitive_more_nulls_than_limit() {
        test_sort_to_indices_primitive_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![None, None, Some(3), None, Some(1), None, Some(2)],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![4, 6],
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_boolean() {
        // boolean
        test_sort_to_indices_boolean_arrays(
            vec![None, Some(false), Some(true), Some(true), Some(false), None],
            None,
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 1, 4, 2, 3],
        );

        // boolean, descending
        test_sort_to_indices_boolean_arrays(
            vec![None, Some(false), Some(true), Some(true), Some(false), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![2, 3, 1, 4, 0, 5],
        );

        // boolean, descending, nulls first
        test_sort_to_indices_boolean_arrays(
            vec![None, Some(false), Some(true), Some(true), Some(false), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 5, 2, 3, 1, 4],
        );

        // boolean, descending, nulls first, limit
        test_sort_to_indices_boolean_arrays(
            vec![None, Some(false), Some(true), Some(true), Some(false), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![0, 5, 2],
        );

        // valid values less than limit with extra nulls
        test_sort_to_indices_boolean_arrays(
            vec![Some(true), None, None, Some(false)],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![3, 0, 1],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_boolean_arrays(
            vec![Some(true), None, None, Some(false)],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![1, 2, 3],
        );

        // more nulls than limit
        test_sort_to_indices_boolean_arrays(
            vec![Some(true), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![1, 2],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_boolean_arrays(
            vec![Some(true), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![0, 1],
        );
    }

    /// Test sort boolean on each permutation of with/without limit and GenericListArray/FixedSizeListArray
    ///
    /// The input data must have the same length for all list items so that we can test FixedSizeListArray
    ///
    fn test_every_config_sort_boolean_list_arrays(
        data: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<bool>>>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        expected_data: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<bool>>>>,
    ) {
        let first_length = data
            .iter()
            .find_map(|x| x.as_ref().map(|x| x.len()))
            .unwrap_or(0);
        let first_non_match_length = data
            .iter()
            .map(|x| x.as_ref().map(|x| x.len()).unwrap_or(first_length))
            .position(|x| x != first_length);

        assert_eq!(
            first_non_match_length, None,
            "All list items should have the same length {first_length}, input data is invalid"
        );

        let first_non_match_length = expected_data
            .iter()
            .map(|x| x.as_ref().map(|x| x.len()).unwrap_or(first_length))
            .position(|x| x != first_length);

        assert_eq!(
            first_non_match_length, None,
            "All list items should have the same length {first_length}, expected data is invalid"
        );

        let limit = expected_data.len().saturating_div(2);

        for &with_limit in &[false, true] {
            let (limit, expected_data) = if with_limit {
                (
                    Some(limit),
                    expected_data.iter().take(limit).cloned().collect(),
                )
            } else {
                (None, expected_data.clone())
            };

            for &fixed_length in &[None, Some(first_length as i32)] {
                test_sort_boolean_list_arrays(
                    data.clone(),
                    options,
                    limit,
                    expected_data.clone(),
                    fixed_length,
                );
            }
        }
    }

    fn test_sort_boolean_list_arrays(
        data: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<bool>>>>,
        options: Option<SortOptions>,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        expected_data: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<bool>>>>,
        fixed_length: Option<i32>,
    ) {
        fn build_fixed_boolean_list_array(
            data: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<bool>>>>,
            fixed_length: i32,
        ) -> ArrayRef {
            let mut builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(
                BooleanBuilder::with_capacity(fixed_length as usize),
                fixed_length,
            );
            for sublist in data {
                match sublist {
                    Some(sublist) => {
                        builder.values().extend(sublist);
                        builder.append(true);
                    }
                    None => {
                        builder
                            .values()
                            .extend(std::iter::repeat_n(None, fixed_length as usize));
                        builder.append(false);
                    }
                }
            }
            Arc::new(builder.finish()) as ArrayRef
        }

        fn build_generic_boolean_list_array<OffsetSize: OffsetSizeTrait>(
            data: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<bool>>>>,
        ) -> ArrayRef {
            let mut builder = GenericListBuilder::<OffsetSize, _>::new(BooleanBuilder::new());
            builder.extend(data);
            Arc::new(builder.finish()) as ArrayRef
        }

        // for FixedSizedList
        if let Some(length) = fixed_length {
            let input = build_fixed_boolean_list_array(data.clone(), length);
            let sorted = match limit {
                Some(_) => sort_limit(&(input as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
                _ => sort(&(input as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
            };
            let expected = build_fixed_boolean_list_array(expected_data.clone(), length);

            assert_eq!(&sorted, &expected);
        }

        // for List
        let input = build_generic_boolean_list_array::<i32>(data.clone());
        let sorted = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(input as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            _ => sort(&(input as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        let expected = build_generic_boolean_list_array::<i32>(expected_data.clone());

        assert_eq!(&sorted, &expected);

        // for LargeList
        let input = build_generic_boolean_list_array::<i64>(data.clone());
        let sorted = match limit {
            Some(_) => sort_limit(&(input as ArrayRef), options, limit).unwrap(),
            _ => sort(&(input as ArrayRef), options).unwrap(),
        };
        let expected = build_generic_boolean_list_array::<i64>(expected_data.clone());

        assert_eq!(&sorted, &expected);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_list_of_booleans() {
        // These are all the possible combinations of boolean values
        // There are 3^3 + 1 = 28 possible combinations (3 values to permutate - [true, false, null] and 1 None value)
        #[rustfmt::skip]
        let mut cases = vec![
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  None]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), None]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        None]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  None]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), None]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        None]),

            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  None]),

            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), None]),

            Some(vec![None,        None,        Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![None,        None,        Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![None,        None,        None]),
            None,
        ];

        cases.shuffle(&mut StdRng::seed_from_u64(42));

        // The order is false, true, null
        #[rustfmt::skip]
        let expected_descending_false_nulls_first_false = vec![
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), None]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  None]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        None]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), None]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  None]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        None]),

            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), None]),

            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  None]),

            Some(vec![None,        None,        Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![None,        None,        Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![None,        None,        None]),
            None,
        ];
        test_every_config_sort_boolean_list_arrays(
            cases.clone(),
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            expected_descending_false_nulls_first_false,
        );

        // The order is null, false, true
        #[rustfmt::skip]
        let expected_descending_false_nulls_first_true = vec![
            None,

            Some(vec![None,        None,        None]),
            Some(vec![None,        None,        Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![None,        None,        Some(true)]),

            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), None]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), Some(true)]),

            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  None]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  Some(true)]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        None]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        Some(true)]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), None]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), Some(true)]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  None]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  Some(true)]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        None]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        Some(true)]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), None]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), Some(true)]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  None]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  Some(true)]),
        ];

        test_every_config_sort_boolean_list_arrays(
            cases.clone(),
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            expected_descending_false_nulls_first_true,
        );

        // The order is true, false, null
        #[rustfmt::skip]
        let expected_descending_true_nulls_first_false = vec![
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  None]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), None]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        None]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  None]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), None]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        None]),

            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  None]),

            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), None]),

            Some(vec![None,        None,        Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![None,        None,        Some(false)]),
            Some(vec![None,        None,        None]),

            None,
        ];
        test_every_config_sort_boolean_list_arrays(
            cases.clone(),
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            expected_descending_true_nulls_first_false,
        );

        // The order is null, true, false
        #[rustfmt::skip]
        let expected_descending_true_nulls_first_true = vec![
            None,

            Some(vec![None,        None,        None]),
            Some(vec![None,        None,        Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![None,        None,        Some(false)]),

            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  None]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(true),  Some(false)]),

            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), None]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![None,        Some(false), Some(false)]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        None]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  None,        Some(false)]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  None]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(true),  Some(false)]),

            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), None]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(true),  Some(false), Some(false)]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        None]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), None,        Some(false)]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  None]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(true),  Some(false)]),

            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), None]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), Some(true)]),
            Some(vec![Some(false), Some(false), Some(false)]),
        ];
        // Testing with limit false and fixed_length None
        test_every_config_sort_boolean_list_arrays(
            cases.clone(),
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            expected_descending_true_nulls_first_true,
        );
    }

    fn test_sort_indices_decimal<T: DecimalType>(precision: u8, scale: i8) {
        // decimal default
        test_sort_to_indices_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            None,
            None,
            vec![0, 6, 4, 2, 3, 5, 1],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // decimal descending
        test_sort_to_indices_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![1, 5, 3, 2, 4, 0, 6],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // decimal null_first and descending
        test_sort_to_indices_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 6, 1, 5, 3, 2, 4],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // decimal null_first
        test_sort_to_indices_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 6, 4, 2, 3, 5, 1],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // limit
        test_sort_to_indices_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            None,
            Some(3),
            vec![0, 6, 4],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // limit descending
        test_sort_to_indices_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![1, 5, 3],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // limit descending null_first
        test_sort_to_indices_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![0, 6, 1],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // limit null_first
        test_sort_to_indices_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![0, 6, 4],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_indices_decimal32() {
        test_sort_indices_decimal::<Decimal32Type>(8, 3);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_indices_decimal64() {
        test_sort_indices_decimal::<Decimal64Type>(17, 5);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_indices_decimal128() {
        test_sort_indices_decimal::<Decimal128Type>(23, 6);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_indices_decimal256() {
        test_sort_indices_decimal::<Decimal256Type>(53, 6);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_indices_decimal256_max_min() {
        let data = vec![
            None,
            Some(i256::MIN),
            Some(i256::from_i128(1)),
            Some(i256::MAX),
            Some(i256::from_i128(-1)),
        ];
        test_sort_to_indices_decimal256_array(
            data.clone(),
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 1, 4, 2, 3],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_decimal256_array(
            data.clone(),
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 3, 2, 4, 1],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_decimal256_array(
            data.clone(),
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(4),
            vec![0, 1, 4, 2],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_decimal256_array(
            data.clone(),
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(4),
            vec![0, 3, 2, 4],
        );
    }

    fn test_sort_decimal<T: DecimalType>(precision: u8, scale: i8) {
        // decimal default
        test_sort_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            None,
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(1), Some(2), Some(3), Some(4), Some(5)],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // decimal descending
        test_sort_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(5), Some(4), Some(3), Some(2), Some(1), None, None],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // decimal null_first and descending
        test_sort_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(5), Some(4), Some(3), Some(2), Some(1)],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // decimal null_first
        test_sort_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(1), Some(2), Some(3), Some(4), Some(5)],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // limit
        test_sort_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            None,
            Some(3),
            vec![None, None, Some(1)],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // limit descending
        test_sort_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![Some(5), Some(4), Some(3)],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // limit descending null_first
        test_sort_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![None, None, Some(5)],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
        // limit null_first
        test_sort_decimal_array::<T>(
            vec![None, Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), Some(1), Some(4), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![None, None, Some(1)],
            precision,
            scale,
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_decimal32() {
        test_sort_decimal::<Decimal32Type>(8, 3);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_decimal64() {
        test_sort_decimal::<Decimal64Type>(17, 5);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_decimal128() {
        test_sort_decimal::<Decimal128Type>(23, 6);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_decimal256() {
        test_sort_decimal::<Decimal256Type>(53, 6);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_decimal256_max_min() {
        test_sort_decimal256_array(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(i256::MIN),
                Some(i256::from_i128(1)),
                Some(i256::MAX),
                Some(i256::from_i128(-1)),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some(i256::MIN),
                Some(i256::from_i128(-1)),
                Some(i256::from_i128(1)),
                Some(i256::MAX),
            ],
        );

        test_sort_decimal256_array(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(i256::MIN),
                Some(i256::from_i128(1)),
                Some(i256::MAX),
                Some(i256::from_i128(-1)),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some(i256::MAX),
                Some(i256::from_i128(1)),
                Some(i256::from_i128(-1)),
                Some(i256::MIN),
            ],
        );

        test_sort_decimal256_array(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(i256::MIN),
                Some(i256::from_i128(1)),
                Some(i256::MAX),
                Some(i256::from_i128(-1)),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(4),
            vec![None, None, Some(i256::MIN), Some(i256::from_i128(-1))],
        );

        test_sort_decimal256_array(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(i256::MIN),
                Some(i256::from_i128(1)),
                Some(i256::MAX),
                Some(i256::from_i128(-1)),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(4),
            vec![None, None, Some(i256::MAX), Some(i256::from_i128(1))],
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_primitives() {
        // default case
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<UInt8Type>(
            vec![None, Some(3), Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), None],
            None,
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(2), Some(3), Some(3), Some(5)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<UInt16Type>(
            vec![None, Some(3), Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), None],
            None,
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(2), Some(3), Some(3), Some(5)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<UInt32Type>(
            vec![None, Some(3), Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), None],
            None,
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(2), Some(3), Some(3), Some(5)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<UInt64Type>(
            vec![None, Some(3), Some(5), Some(2), Some(3), None],
            None,
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(2), Some(3), Some(3), Some(5)],
        );

        // descending
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int8Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(2), Some(0), Some(0), Some(-1), None, None],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(2), Some(0), Some(0), Some(-1), None, None],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(2), Some(0), Some(0), Some(-1), None, None],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(2), Some(0), Some(0), Some(-1), None, None],
        );

        // descending, nulls first
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int8Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(2), Some(0), Some(0), Some(-1)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(2), Some(0), Some(0), Some(-1)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(2), Some(0), Some(0), Some(-1)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int64Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(2), Some(0), Some(0), Some(-1)],
        );

        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int64Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![None, None, Some(2)],
        );

        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float16Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.0)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(2.0)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(-1.0)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.0)),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some(f16::from_f32(2.0)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.0)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.0)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(-1.0)),
            ],
        );

        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float32Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0.0), Some(2.0), Some(-1.0), Some(0.0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(2.0), Some(0.0), Some(0.0), Some(-1.0)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0.0), Some(2.0), Some(-1.0), Some(f64::NAN), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(f64::NAN), Some(2.0), Some(0.0), Some(-1.0)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![Some(f64::NAN), Some(f64::NAN), Some(f64::NAN), Some(1.0)],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(f64::NAN), Some(f64::NAN), Some(f64::NAN), Some(1.0)],
        );

        // int8 nulls first
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int8Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(-1), Some(0), Some(0), Some(2)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(-1), Some(0), Some(0), Some(2)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(-1), Some(0), Some(0), Some(2)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Int64Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0), Some(2), Some(-1), Some(0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(-1), Some(0), Some(0), Some(2)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float16Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.0)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(2.0)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(-1.0)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.0)),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some(f16::from_f32(-1.0)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.0)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(0.0)),
                Some(f16::from_f32(2.0)),
            ],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float32Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0.0), Some(2.0), Some(-1.0), Some(0.0), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(-1.0), Some(0.0), Some(0.0), Some(2.0)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![None, Some(0.0), Some(2.0), Some(-1.0), Some(f64::NAN), None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(-1.0), Some(0.0), Some(2.0), Some(f64::NAN)],
        );
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![Some(f64::NAN), Some(f64::NAN), Some(f64::NAN), Some(1.0)],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(1.0), Some(f64::NAN), Some(f64::NAN), Some(f64::NAN)],
        );

        // limit
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![Some(f64::NAN), Some(f64::NAN), Some(f64::NAN), Some(1.0)],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![Some(1.0), Some(f64::NAN)],
        );

        // limit with actual value
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![Some(2.0), Some(4.0), Some(3.0), Some(1.0)],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![Some(1.0), Some(2.0), Some(3.0)],
        );

        // valid values less than limit with extra nulls
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![Some(2.0), None, None, Some(1.0)],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![Some(1.0), Some(2.0), None],
        );

        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![Some(2.0), None, None, Some(1.0)],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![None, None, Some(1.0)],
        );

        // more nulls than limit
        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![Some(2.0), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![None, None],
        );

        test_sort_primitive_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![Some(2.0), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![Some(2.0), None],
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_to_indices_strings() {
        test_sort_to_indices_string_arrays(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            None,
            None,
            vec![0, 3, 5, 1, 4, 2],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_string_arrays(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![2, 4, 1, 5, 0, 3],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_string_arrays(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 3, 5, 1, 4, 2],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_string_arrays(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![0, 3, 2, 4, 1, 5],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_string_arrays(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![0, 3, 2],
        );

        // valid values less than limit with extra nulls
        test_sort_to_indices_string_arrays(
            vec![Some("def"), None, None, Some("abc")],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![3, 0, 1],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_string_arrays(
            vec![Some("def"), None, None, Some("abc")],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![1, 2, 3],
        );

        // more nulls than limit
        test_sort_to_indices_string_arrays(
            vec![Some("def"), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![1, 2],
        );

        test_sort_to_indices_string_arrays(
            vec![Some("def"), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![0, 1],
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_strings() {
        test_sort_string_arrays(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("sad"),
                Some("long string longer than 12 bytes"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("lang string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            None,
            None,
            vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some("-ad"),
                Some("bad"),
                Some("glad"),
                Some("lang string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("long string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("sad"),
            ],
        );

        test_sort_string_arrays(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("sad"),
                Some("long string longer than 12 bytes"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("lang string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some("sad"),
                Some("long string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("lang string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("glad"),
                Some("bad"),
                Some("-ad"),
                None,
                None,
            ],
        );

        test_sort_string_arrays(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("long string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("lang string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some("-ad"),
                Some("bad"),
                Some("glad"),
                Some("lang string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("long string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("sad"),
            ],
        );

        test_sort_string_arrays(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("long string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("lang string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some("sad"),
                Some("long string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("lang string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("glad"),
                Some("bad"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
        );

        test_sort_string_arrays(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("long string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("lang string longer than 12 bytes"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![None, None, Some("sad")],
        );

        // valid values less than limit with extra nulls
        test_sort_string_arrays(
            vec![
                Some("def long string longer than 12"),
                None,
                None,
                Some("abc"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![Some("abc"), Some("def long string longer than 12"), None],
        );

        test_sort_string_arrays(
            vec![
                Some("def long string longer than 12"),
                None,
                None,
                Some("abc"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![None, None, Some("abc")],
        );

        // more nulls than limit
        test_sort_string_arrays(
            vec![Some("def long string longer than 12"), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![None, None],
        );

        test_sort_string_arrays(
            vec![Some("def long string longer than 12"), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![Some("def long string longer than 12"), None],
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_run_to_run() {
        test_sort_run_inner(|array, sort_options, limit| sort_run(array, sort_options, limit));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_run_to_indices() {
        test_sort_run_inner(|array, sort_options, limit| {
            let indices = sort_to_indices(array, sort_options, limit).unwrap();
            take(array, &indices, None)
        });
    }

    fn test_sort_run_inner<F>(sort_fn: F)
    where
        F: Fn(&dyn Array, Option<SortOptions>, Option<usize>) -> Result<ArrayRef, ArrowError>,
    {
        // Create an input array for testing
        let total_len = 80;
        let vals: Vec<Option<i32>> = vec![Some(1), None, Some(2), Some(3), Some(4), None, Some(5)];
        let repeats: Vec<usize> = vec![1, 3, 2, 4];
        let mut input_array: Vec<Option<i32>> = Vec::with_capacity(total_len);
        for ix in 0_usize..32 {
            let repeat: usize = repeats[ix % repeats.len()];
            let val: Option<i32> = vals[ix % vals.len()];
            input_array.resize(input_array.len() + repeat, val);
        }

        // create run array using input_array
        // Encode the input_array to run array
        let mut builder =
            PrimitiveRunBuilder::<Int16Type, Int32Type>::with_capacity(input_array.len());
        builder.extend(input_array.iter().copied());
        let run_array = builder.finish();

        // slice lengths that are tested
        let slice_lens = [
            1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80,
        ];
        for slice_len in slice_lens {
            test_sort_run_inner2(
                input_array.as_slice(),
                &run_array,
                0,
                slice_len,
                None,
                &sort_fn,
            );
            test_sort_run_inner2(
                input_array.as_slice(),
                &run_array,
                total_len - slice_len,
                slice_len,
                None,
                &sort_fn,
            );
            // Test with non zero limit
            if slice_len > 1 {
                test_sort_run_inner2(
                    input_array.as_slice(),
                    &run_array,
                    0,
                    slice_len,
                    Some(slice_len / 2),
                    &sort_fn,
                );
                test_sort_run_inner2(
                    input_array.as_slice(),
                    &run_array,
                    total_len - slice_len,
                    slice_len,
                    Some(slice_len / 2),
                    &sort_fn,
                );
            }
        }
    }

    fn test_sort_run_inner2<F>(
        input_array: &[Option<i32>],
        run_array: &RunArray<Int16Type>,
        offset: usize,
        length: usize,
        limit: Option<usize>,
        sort_fn: &F,
    ) where
        F: Fn(&dyn Array, Option<SortOptions>, Option<usize>) -> Result<ArrayRef, ArrowError>,
    {
        // Run the sort and build actual result
        let sliced_array = run_array.slice(offset, length);
        let sorted_sliced_array = sort_fn(&sliced_array, None, limit).unwrap();
        let sorted_run_array = sorted_sliced_array
            .as_any()
            .downcast_ref::<RunArray<Int16Type>>()
            .unwrap();
        let typed_run_array = sorted_run_array
            .downcast::<PrimitiveArray<Int32Type>>()
            .unwrap();
        let actual: Vec<Option<i32>> = typed_run_array.into_iter().collect();

        // build expected result.
        let mut sliced_input = input_array[offset..(offset + length)].to_owned();
        sliced_input.sort();
        let expected = if let Some(limit) = limit {
            sliced_input.iter().take(limit).copied().collect()
        } else {
            sliced_input
        };

        assert_eq!(expected, actual)
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_string_dicts() {
        test_sort_string_dict_arrays::<Int8Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            None,
            None,
            vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some("-ad"),
                Some("bad"),
                Some("glad"),
                Some("sad"),
            ],
        );

        test_sort_string_dict_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some("sad"),
                Some("glad"),
                Some("bad"),
                Some("-ad"),
                None,
                None,
            ],
        );

        test_sort_string_dict_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some("-ad"),
                Some("bad"),
                Some("glad"),
                Some("sad"),
            ],
        );

        test_sort_string_dict_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some("sad"),
                Some("glad"),
                Some("bad"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
        );

        test_sort_string_dict_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some("bad"),
                Some("sad"),
                None,
                Some("glad"),
                Some("-ad"),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![None, None, Some("sad")],
        );

        // valid values less than limit with extra nulls
        test_sort_string_dict_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![Some("def"), None, None, Some("abc")],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![Some("abc"), Some("def"), None],
        );

        test_sort_string_dict_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![Some("def"), None, None, Some("abc")],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![None, None, Some("abc")],
        );

        // more nulls than limit
        test_sort_string_dict_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![Some("def"), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![None, None],
        );

        test_sort_string_dict_arrays::<Int16Type>(
            vec![Some("def"), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![Some("def"), None],
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_list() {
        test_sort_list_arrays::<Int8Type>(
            vec![
                Some(vec![Some(1)]),
                Some(vec![Some(4)]),
                Some(vec![Some(2)]),
                Some(vec![Some(3)]),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some(vec![Some(1)]),
                Some(vec![Some(2)]),
                Some(vec![Some(3)]),
                Some(vec![Some(4)]),
            ],
            Some(1),
        );

        test_sort_list_arrays::<Float16Type>(
            vec![
                Some(vec![Some(f16::from_f32(1.0)), Some(f16::from_f32(0.0))]),
                Some(vec![
                    Some(f16::from_f32(4.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(3.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(2.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(1.0)),
                ]),
                Some(vec![
                    Some(f16::from_f32(2.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(3.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(4.0)),
                ]),
                Some(vec![
                    Some(f16::from_f32(3.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(3.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(3.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(3.0)),
                ]),
                Some(vec![Some(f16::from_f32(1.0)), Some(f16::from_f32(1.0))]),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some(vec![Some(f16::from_f32(1.0)), Some(f16::from_f32(0.0))]),
                Some(vec![Some(f16::from_f32(1.0)), Some(f16::from_f32(1.0))]),
                Some(vec![
                    Some(f16::from_f32(2.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(3.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(4.0)),
                ]),
                Some(vec![
                    Some(f16::from_f32(3.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(3.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(3.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(3.0)),
                ]),
                Some(vec![
                    Some(f16::from_f32(4.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(3.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(2.0)),
                    Some(f16::from_f32(1.0)),
                ]),
            ],
            None,
        );

        test_sort_list_arrays::<Float32Type>(
            vec![
                Some(vec![Some(1.0), Some(0.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(4.0), Some(3.0), Some(2.0), Some(1.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(2.0), Some(3.0), Some(4.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(3.0), Some(3.0), Some(3.0), Some(3.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(1.0), Some(1.0)]),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some(vec![Some(1.0), Some(0.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(1.0), Some(1.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(2.0), Some(3.0), Some(4.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(3.0), Some(3.0), Some(3.0), Some(3.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(4.0), Some(3.0), Some(2.0), Some(1.0)]),
            ],
            None,
        );

        test_sort_list_arrays::<Float64Type>(
            vec![
                Some(vec![Some(1.0), Some(0.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(4.0), Some(3.0), Some(2.0), Some(1.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(2.0), Some(3.0), Some(4.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(3.0), Some(3.0), Some(3.0), Some(3.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(1.0), Some(1.0)]),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some(vec![Some(1.0), Some(0.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(1.0), Some(1.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(2.0), Some(3.0), Some(4.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(3.0), Some(3.0), Some(3.0), Some(3.0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(4.0), Some(3.0), Some(2.0), Some(1.0)]),
            ],
            None,
        );

        test_sort_list_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![
                Some(vec![Some(1), Some(0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(4), Some(3), Some(2), Some(1)]),
                Some(vec![Some(2), Some(3), Some(4)]),
                Some(vec![Some(3), Some(3), Some(3), Some(3)]),
                Some(vec![Some(1), Some(1)]),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some(vec![Some(1), Some(0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(1), Some(1)]),
                Some(vec![Some(2), Some(3), Some(4)]),
                Some(vec![Some(3), Some(3), Some(3), Some(3)]),
                Some(vec![Some(4), Some(3), Some(2), Some(1)]),
            ],
            None,
        );

        test_sort_list_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![
                None,
                Some(vec![Some(4), None, Some(2)]),
                Some(vec![Some(2), Some(3), Some(4)]),
                None,
                Some(vec![Some(3), Some(3), None]),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some(vec![Some(2), Some(3), Some(4)]),
                Some(vec![Some(3), Some(3), None]),
                Some(vec![Some(4), None, Some(2)]),
                None,
                None,
            ],
            Some(3),
        );

        test_sort_list_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![
                Some(vec![Some(1), Some(0)]),
                Some(vec![Some(4), Some(3), Some(2), Some(1)]),
                Some(vec![Some(2), Some(3), Some(4)]),
                Some(vec![Some(3), Some(3), Some(3), Some(3)]),
                Some(vec![Some(1), Some(1)]),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![Some(vec![Some(1), Some(0)]), Some(vec![Some(1), Some(1)])],
            None,
        );

        // valid values less than limit with extra nulls
        test_sort_list_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![Some(vec![Some(1)]), None, None, Some(vec![Some(2)])],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![Some(vec![Some(1)]), Some(vec![Some(2)]), None],
            None,
        );

        test_sort_list_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![Some(vec![Some(1)]), None, None, Some(vec![Some(2)])],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![None, None, Some(vec![Some(1)])],
            None,
        );

        // more nulls than limit
        test_sort_list_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![Some(vec![Some(1)]), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![None, None],
            None,
        );

        test_sort_list_arrays::<Int32Type>(
            vec![Some(vec![Some(1)]), None, None, None],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            Some(2),
            vec![Some(vec![Some(1)]), None],
            None,
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_binary() {
        test_sort_binary_arrays(
            vec![
                Some(vec![0, 0, 0]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 5]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 3]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 7]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 1]),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some(vec![0, 0, 0]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 1]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 3]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 5]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 7]),
            ],
            Some(3),
        );

        // with nulls
        test_sort_binary_arrays(
            vec![
                Some(vec![0, 0, 0]),
                None,
                Some(vec![0, 0, 3]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 7]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 1]),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some(vec![0, 0, 0]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 1]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 3]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 7]),
                None,
                None,
            ],
            Some(3),
        );

        test_sort_binary_arrays(
            vec![
                Some(vec![3, 5, 7]),
                None,
                Some(vec![1, 7, 1]),
                Some(vec![2, 7, 3]),
                None,
                Some(vec![1, 4, 3]),
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some(vec![1, 4, 3]),
                Some(vec![1, 7, 1]),
                Some(vec![2, 7, 3]),
                Some(vec![3, 5, 7]),
                None,
                None,
            ],
            Some(3),
        );

        // descending
        test_sort_binary_arrays(
            vec![
                Some(vec![0, 0, 0]),
                None,
                Some(vec![0, 0, 3]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 7]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 1]),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some(vec![0, 0, 7]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 3]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 1]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 0]),
                None,
                None,
            ],
            Some(3),
        );

        // nulls first
        test_sort_binary_arrays(
            vec![
                Some(vec![0, 0, 0]),
                None,
                Some(vec![0, 0, 3]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 7]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 1]),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some(vec![0, 0, 0]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 1]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 3]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 7]),
            ],
            Some(3),
        );

        // limit
        test_sort_binary_arrays(
            vec![
                Some(vec![0, 0, 0]),
                None,
                Some(vec![0, 0, 3]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 7]),
                Some(vec![0, 0, 1]),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(4),
            vec![None, None, Some(vec![0, 0, 0]), Some(vec![0, 0, 1])],
            Some(3),
        );

        // var length
        test_sort_binary_arrays(
            vec![
                Some(b"Hello".to_vec()),
                None,
                Some(b"from".to_vec()),
                Some(b"Apache".to_vec()),
                Some(b"Arrow-rs".to_vec()),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![
                Some(b"Apache".to_vec()),
                Some(b"Arrow-rs".to_vec()),
                Some(b"Hello".to_vec()),
                Some(b"from".to_vec()),
                None,
                None,
            ],
            None,
        );

        // limit
        test_sort_binary_arrays(
            vec![
                Some(b"Hello".to_vec()),
                None,
                Some(b"from".to_vec()),
                Some(b"Apache".to_vec()),
                Some(b"Arrow-rs".to_vec()),
                None,
            ],
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(4),
            vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some(b"Apache".to_vec()),
                Some(b"Arrow-rs".to_vec()),
            ],
            None,
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_lex_sort_single_column() {
        let input = vec![SortColumn {
            values: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                Some(17),
                Some(2),
                Some(-1),
                Some(0),
            ])) as ArrayRef,
            options: None,
        }];
        let expected = vec![Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
            Some(-1),
            Some(0),
            Some(2),
            Some(17),
        ])) as ArrayRef];
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input.clone(), expected.clone(), None);
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input.clone(), slice_arrays(expected, 0, 2), Some(2));

        // Explicitly test a limit on the sort as a demonstration
        let expected = vec![Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
            Some(-1),
            Some(0),
            Some(2),
        ])) as ArrayRef];
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input, expected, Some(3));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_lex_sort_unaligned_rows() {
        let input = vec![
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![None, Some(-1)]))
                    as ArrayRef,
                options: None,
            },
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![Some("foo")])) as ArrayRef,
                options: None,
            },
        ];
        assert!(
            lexsort(&input, None).is_err(),
            "lexsort should reject columns with different row counts"
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_lex_sort_mixed_types() {
        let input = vec![
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                    Some(0),
                    Some(2),
                    Some(-1),
                    Some(0),
                ])) as ArrayRef,
                options: None,
            },
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<UInt32Type>::from(vec![
                    Some(101),
                    Some(8),
                    Some(7),
                    Some(102),
                ])) as ArrayRef,
                options: None,
            },
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                    Some(-1),
                    Some(-2),
                    Some(-3),
                    Some(-4),
                ])) as ArrayRef,
                options: None,
            },
        ];
        let expected = vec![
            Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                Some(-1),
                Some(0),
                Some(0),
                Some(2),
            ])) as ArrayRef,
            Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<UInt32Type>::from(vec![
                Some(7),
                Some(101),
                Some(102),
                Some(8),
            ])) as ArrayRef,
            Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                Some(-3),
                Some(-1),
                Some(-4),
                Some(-2),
            ])) as ArrayRef,
        ];
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input.clone(), expected.clone(), None);
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input, slice_arrays(expected, 0, 2), Some(2));

        // test mix of string and in64 with option
        let input = vec![
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                    Some(0),
                    Some(2),
                    Some(-1),
                    Some(0),
                ])) as ArrayRef,
                options: Some(SortOptions {
                    descending: true,
                    nulls_first: true,
                }),
            },
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
                    Some("foo"),
                    Some("9"),
                    Some("7"),
                    Some("bar"),
                ])) as ArrayRef,
                options: Some(SortOptions {
                    descending: true,
                    nulls_first: true,
                }),
            },
        ];
        let expected = vec![
            Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                Some(2),
                Some(0),
                Some(0),
                Some(-1),
            ])) as ArrayRef,
            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
                Some("9"),
                Some("foo"),
                Some("bar"),
                Some("7"),
            ])) as ArrayRef,
        ];
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input.clone(), expected.clone(), None);
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input, slice_arrays(expected, 0, 3), Some(3));

        // test sort with nulls first
        let input = vec![
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                    None,
                    Some(-1),
                    Some(2),
                    None,
                ])) as ArrayRef,
                options: Some(SortOptions {
                    descending: true,
                    nulls_first: true,
                }),
            },
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
                    Some("foo"),
                    Some("world"),
                    Some("hello"),
                    None,
                ])) as ArrayRef,
                options: Some(SortOptions {
                    descending: true,
                    nulls_first: true,
                }),
            },
        ];
        let expected = vec![
            Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                None,
                None,
                Some(2),
                Some(-1),
            ])) as ArrayRef,
            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
                None,
                Some("foo"),
                Some("hello"),
                Some("world"),
            ])) as ArrayRef,
        ];
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input.clone(), expected.clone(), None);
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input, slice_arrays(expected, 0, 1), Some(1));

        // test sort with nulls last
        let input = vec![
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                    None,
                    Some(-1),
                    Some(2),
                    None,
                ])) as ArrayRef,
                options: Some(SortOptions {
                    descending: true,
                    nulls_first: false,
                }),
            },
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
                    Some("foo"),
                    Some("world"),
                    Some("hello"),
                    None,
                ])) as ArrayRef,
                options: Some(SortOptions {
                    descending: true,
                    nulls_first: false,
                }),
            },
        ];
        let expected = vec![
            Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                Some(2),
                Some(-1),
                None,
                None,
            ])) as ArrayRef,
            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
                Some("hello"),
                Some("world"),
                Some("foo"),
                None,
            ])) as ArrayRef,
        ];
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input.clone(), expected.clone(), None);
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input, slice_arrays(expected, 0, 2), Some(2));

        // test sort with opposite options
        let input = vec![
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                    None,
                    Some(-1),
                    Some(2),
                    Some(-1),
                    None,
                ])) as ArrayRef,
                options: Some(SortOptions {
                    descending: false,
                    nulls_first: false,
                }),
            },
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
                    Some("foo"),
                    Some("bar"),
                    Some("world"),
                    Some("hello"),
                    None,
                ])) as ArrayRef,
                options: Some(SortOptions {
                    descending: true,
                    nulls_first: true,
                }),
            },
        ];
        let expected = vec![
            Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<Int64Type>::from(vec![
                Some(-1),
                Some(-1),
                Some(2),
                None,
                None,
            ])) as ArrayRef,
            Arc::new(StringArray::from(vec![
                Some("hello"),
                Some("bar"),
                Some("world"),
                None,
                Some("foo"),
            ])) as ArrayRef,
        ];
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input.clone(), expected.clone(), None);
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input.clone(), slice_arrays(expected.clone(), 0, 5), Some(5));

        // Limiting by more rows than present is ok
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input, slice_arrays(expected, 0, 5), Some(10));

        // test with FixedSizeListArray, arrays order: [UInt32, FixedSizeList(UInt32, 1)]

        // case1
        let primitive_array_data = vec![
            Some(2),
            Some(3),
            Some(2),
            Some(0),
            None,
            Some(2),
            Some(1),
            Some(2),
        ];
        let list_array_data = vec![
            None,
            Some(vec![Some(4)]),
            Some(vec![Some(3)]),
            Some(vec![Some(1)]),
            Some(vec![Some(5)]),
            Some(vec![Some(0)]),
            Some(vec![Some(2)]),
            Some(vec![None]),
        ];

        let expected_primitive_array_data = vec![
            None,
            Some(0),
            Some(1),
            Some(2),
            Some(2),
            Some(2),
            Some(2),
            Some(3),
        ];
        let expected_list_array_data = vec![
            Some(vec![Some(5)]),
            Some(vec![Some(1)]),
            Some(vec![Some(2)]),
            None, // <-
            Some(vec![None]),
            Some(vec![Some(0)]),
            Some(vec![Some(3)]), // <-
            Some(vec![Some(4)]),
        ];
        test_lex_sort_mixed_types_with_fixed_size_list::<Int32Type>(
            primitive_array_data.clone(),
            list_array_data.clone(),
            expected_primitive_array_data.clone(),
            expected_list_array_data,
            None,
            None,
        );

        // case2
        let primitive_array_options = SortOptions {
            descending: false,
            nulls_first: true,
        };
        let list_array_options = SortOptions {
            descending: false,
            nulls_first: false, // has been modified
        };
        let expected_list_array_data = vec![
            Some(vec![Some(5)]),
            Some(vec![Some(1)]),
            Some(vec![Some(2)]),
            Some(vec![Some(0)]), // <-
            Some(vec![Some(3)]),
            Some(vec![None]),
            None, // <-
            Some(vec![Some(4)]),
        ];
        test_lex_sort_mixed_types_with_fixed_size_list::<Int32Type>(
            primitive_array_data.clone(),
            list_array_data.clone(),
            expected_primitive_array_data.clone(),
            expected_list_array_data,
            Some(primitive_array_options),
            Some(list_array_options),
        );

        // case3
        let primitive_array_options = SortOptions {
            descending: false,
            nulls_first: true,
        };
        let list_array_options = SortOptions {
            descending: true, // has been modified
            nulls_first: true,
        };
        let expected_list_array_data = vec![
            Some(vec![Some(5)]),
            Some(vec![Some(1)]),
            Some(vec![Some(2)]),
            None, // <-
            Some(vec![None]),
            Some(vec![Some(3)]),
            Some(vec![Some(0)]), // <-
            Some(vec![Some(4)]),
        ];
        test_lex_sort_mixed_types_with_fixed_size_list::<Int32Type>(
            primitive_array_data.clone(),
            list_array_data.clone(),
            expected_primitive_array_data,
            expected_list_array_data,
            Some(primitive_array_options),
            Some(list_array_options),
        );

        // test with ListArray/LargeListArray, arrays order: [List<UInt32>/LargeList<UInt32>, UInt32]

        let list_array_data = vec![
            Some(vec![Some(2), Some(1)]), // 0
            None,                         // 10
            Some(vec![Some(3)]),          // 1
            Some(vec![Some(2), Some(0)]), // 2
            Some(vec![None, Some(2)]),    // 3
            Some(vec![Some(0)]),          // none
            None,                         // 11
            Some(vec![Some(2), None]),    // 4
            Some(vec![None]),             // 5
            Some(vec![Some(2), Some(1)]), // 6
        ];
        let primitive_array_data = vec![
            Some(0),
            Some(10),
            Some(1),
            Some(2),
            Some(3),
            None,
            Some(11),
            Some(4),
            Some(5),
            Some(6),
        ];
        let expected_list_array_data = vec![
            None,
            None,
            Some(vec![None]),
            Some(vec![None, Some(2)]),
            Some(vec![Some(0)]),
            Some(vec![Some(2), None]),
            Some(vec![Some(2), Some(0)]),
            Some(vec![Some(2), Some(1)]),
            Some(vec![Some(2), Some(1)]),
            Some(vec![Some(3)]),
        ];
        let expected_primitive_array_data = vec![
            Some(10),
            Some(11),
            Some(5),
            Some(3),
            None,
            Some(4),
            Some(2),
            Some(0),
            Some(6),
            Some(1),
        ];
        test_lex_sort_mixed_types_with_list::<Int32Type>(
            list_array_data.clone(),
            primitive_array_data.clone(),
            expected_list_array_data,
            expected_primitive_array_data,
            None,
            None,
        );
    }

    fn test_lex_sort_mixed_types_with_fixed_size_list<T>(
        primitive_array_data: Vec<Option<T::Native>>,
        list_array_data: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>>,
        expected_primitive_array_data: Vec<Option<T::Native>>,
        expected_list_array_data: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>>,
        primitive_array_options: Option<SortOptions>,
        list_array_options: Option<SortOptions>,
    ) where
        T: ArrowPrimitiveType,
        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>,
    {
        let input = vec![
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<T>::from(primitive_array_data.clone()))
                    as ArrayRef,
                options: primitive_array_options,
            },
            SortColumn {
                values: Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<T, _, _>(
                    list_array_data.clone(),
                    1,
                )) as ArrayRef,
                options: list_array_options,
            },
        ];

        let expected = vec![
            Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<T>::from(
                expected_primitive_array_data.clone(),
            )) as ArrayRef,
            Arc::new(FixedSizeListArray::from_iter_primitive::<T, _, _>(
                expected_list_array_data.clone(),
                1,
            )) as ArrayRef,
        ];

        test_lex_sort_arrays(input.clone(), expected.clone(), None);
        test_lex_sort_arrays(input.clone(), slice_arrays(expected.clone(), 0, 5), Some(5));
    }

    fn test_lex_sort_mixed_types_with_list<T>(
        list_array_data: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>>,
        primitive_array_data: Vec<Option<T::Native>>,
        expected_list_array_data: Vec<Option<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>>,
        expected_primitive_array_data: Vec<Option<T::Native>>,
        list_array_options: Option<SortOptions>,
        primitive_array_options: Option<SortOptions>,
    ) where
        T: ArrowPrimitiveType,
        PrimitiveArray<T>: From<Vec<Option<T::Native>>>,
    {
        macro_rules! run_test {
            ($ARRAY_TYPE:ident) => {
                let input = vec![
                    SortColumn {
                        values: Arc::new(<$ARRAY_TYPE>::from_iter_primitive::<T, _, _>(
                            list_array_data.clone(),
                        )) as ArrayRef,
                        options: list_array_options.clone(),
                    },
                    SortColumn {
                        values: Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<T>::from(primitive_array_data.clone()))
                            as ArrayRef,
                        options: primitive_array_options.clone(),
                    },
                ];

                let expected = vec![
                    Arc::new(<$ARRAY_TYPE>::from_iter_primitive::<T, _, _>(
                        expected_list_array_data.clone(),
                    )) as ArrayRef,
                    Arc::new(PrimitiveArray::<T>::from(
                        expected_primitive_array_data.clone(),
                    )) as ArrayRef,
                ];

                test_lex_sort_arrays(input.clone(), expected.clone(), None);
                test_lex_sort_arrays(input.clone(), slice_arrays(expected.clone(), 0, 5), Some(5));
            };
        }
        run_test!(ListArray);
        run_test!(LargeListArray);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_partial_sort() {
        let mut before: Vec<&str> = vec![
            "a", "cat", "mat", "on", "sat", "the", "xxx", "xxxx", "fdadfdsf",
        ];
        let mut d = before.clone();
        d.sort_unstable();

        for last in 0..before.len() {
            partial_sort(&mut before, last, |a, b| a.cmp(b));
            assert_eq!(&d[0..last], &before.as_slice()[0..last]);
        }
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_partial_rand_sort() {
        let size = 1000u32;
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42);
        let mut before: Vec<u32> = (0..size).map(|_| rng.random::<u32>()).collect();
        let mut d = before.clone();
        let last = (rng.next_u32() % size) as usize;
        d.sort_unstable();

        partial_sort(&mut before, last, |a, b| a.cmp(b));
        assert_eq!(&d[0..last], &before[0..last]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_int8_dicts() {
        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1_i8), None, Some(2), None, Some(2), Some(0)]);
        let values = Int8Array::from(vec![1, 3, 5]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Int8Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            None,
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(1), Some(3), Some(5), Some(5)],
        );

        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1_i8), None, Some(2), None, Some(2), Some(0)]);
        let values = Int8Array::from(vec![1, 3, 5]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Int8Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(5), Some(5), Some(3), Some(1), None, None],
        );

        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1_i8), None, Some(2), None, Some(2), Some(0)]);
        let values = Int8Array::from(vec![1, 3, 5]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Int8Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(1), Some(3), Some(5), Some(5), None, None],
        );

        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1_i8), None, Some(2), None, Some(2), Some(0)]);
        let values = Int8Array::from(vec![1, 3, 5]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Int8Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![None, None, Some(5)],
        );

        // Values have `None`.
        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![
            Some(1_i8),
            None,
            Some(3),
            None,
            Some(2),
            Some(3),
            Some(0),
        ]);
        let values = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1), Some(3), None, Some(5)]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Int8Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            None,
            None,
            vec![None, None, None, Some(1), Some(3), Some(5), Some(5)],
        );

        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![
            Some(1_i8),
            None,
            Some(3),
            None,
            Some(2),
            Some(3),
            Some(0),
        ]);
        let values = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1), Some(3), None, Some(5)]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Int8Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(1), Some(3), Some(5), Some(5), None, None, None],
        );

        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![
            Some(1_i8),
            None,
            Some(3),
            None,
            Some(2),
            Some(3),
            Some(0),
        ]);
        let values = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1), Some(3), None, Some(5)]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Int8Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(5), Some(5), Some(3), Some(1), None, None, None],
        );

        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![
            Some(1_i8),
            None,
            Some(3),
            None,
            Some(2),
            Some(3),
            Some(0),
        ]);
        let values = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1), Some(3), None, Some(5)]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Int8Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, None, Some(5), Some(5), Some(3), Some(1)],
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_sort_f32_dicts() {
        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1_i8), None, Some(2), None, Some(2), Some(0)]);
        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![1.2, 3.0, 5.1]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Float32Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            None,
            None,
            vec![None, None, Some(1.2), Some(3.0), Some(5.1), Some(5.1)],
        );

        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1_i8), None, Some(2), None, Some(2), Some(0)]);
        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![1.2, 3.0, 5.1]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Float32Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(5.1), Some(5.1), Some(3.0), Some(1.2), None, None],
        );

        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1_i8), None, Some(2), None, Some(2), Some(0)]);
        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![1.2, 3.0, 5.1]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Float32Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(1.2), Some(3.0), Some(5.1), Some(5.1), None, None],
        );

        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![Some(1_i8), None, Some(2), None, Some(2), Some(0)]);
        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![1.2, 3.0, 5.1]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Float32Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            Some(3),
            vec![None, None, Some(5.1)],
        );

        // Values have `None`.
        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![
            Some(1_i8),
            None,
            Some(3),
            None,
            Some(2),
            Some(3),
            Some(0),
        ]);
        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![Some(1.2), Some(3.0), None, Some(5.1)]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Float32Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            None,
            None,
            vec![None, None, None, Some(1.2), Some(3.0), Some(5.1), Some(5.1)],
        );

        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![
            Some(1_i8),
            None,
            Some(3),
            None,
            Some(2),
            Some(3),
            Some(0),
        ]);
        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![Some(1.2), Some(3.0), None, Some(5.1)]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Float32Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: false,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(1.2), Some(3.0), Some(5.1), Some(5.1), None, None, None],
        );

        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![
            Some(1_i8),
            None,
            Some(3),
            None,
            Some(2),
            Some(3),
            Some(0),
        ]);
        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![Some(1.2), Some(3.0), None, Some(5.1)]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Float32Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            }),
            None,
            vec![Some(5.1), Some(5.1), Some(3.0), Some(1.2), None, None, None],
        );

        let keys = Int8Array::from(vec![
            Some(1_i8),
            None,
            Some(3),
            None,
            Some(2),
            Some(3),
            Some(0),
        ]);
        let values = Float32Array::from(vec![Some(1.2), Some(3.0), None, Some(5.1)]);
        test_sort_primitive_dict_arrays::<Int8Type, Float32Type>(
            keys,
            values,
            Some(SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: true,
            }),
            None,
            vec![None, None, None, Some(5.1), Some(5.1), Some(3.0), Some(1.2)],
        );
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_lexicographic_comparator_null_dict_values() {
        let values = Int32Array::new(
            vec![1, 2, 3, 4].into(),
            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, false, false, true])),
        );
        let keys = Int32Array::new(
            vec![0, 1, 53, 3].into(),
            Some(NullBuffer::from(vec![true, true, false, true])),
        );
        // [1, NULL, NULL, 4]
        let dict = DictionaryArray::new(keys, Arc::new(values));

        let comparator = LexicographicalComparator::try_new(&[SortColumn {
            values: Arc::new(dict),
            options: None,
        }])
        .unwrap();
        // 1.cmp(NULL)
        assert_eq!(comparator.compare(0, 1), Ordering::Greater);
        // NULL.cmp(NULL)
        assert_eq!(comparator.compare(2, 1), Ordering::Equal);
        // NULL.cmp(4)
        assert_eq!(comparator.compare(2, 3), Ordering::Less);
    }

    #[test]
    fn sort_list_equal() {
        let a = {
            let mut builder = FixedSizeListBuilder::new(Int64Builder::new(), 2);
            for value in [[1, 5], [0, 3], [1, 3]] {
                builder.values().append_slice(&value);
                builder.append(true);
            }
            builder.finish()
        };

        let sort_indices = sort_to_indices(&a, None, None).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(sort_indices.values(), &[1, 2, 0]);

        let a = {
            let mut builder = ListBuilder::new(Int64Builder::new());
            for value in [[1, 5], [0, 3], [1, 3]] {
                builder.values().append_slice(&value);
                builder.append(true);
            }
            builder.finish()
        };

        let sort_indices = sort_to_indices(&a, None, None).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(sort_indices.values(), &[1, 2, 0]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn sort_struct_fallback_to_lexsort() {
        let float = Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![1.0, -0.1, 3.5, 1.0]));
        let int = Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![42, 28, 19, 31]));

        let struct_array = StructArray::from(vec![
            (
                Arc::new(Field::new("b", DataType::Float32, false)),
                float.clone() as ArrayRef,
            ),
            (
                Arc::new(Field::new("c", DataType::Int32, false)),
                int.clone() as ArrayRef,
            ),
        ]);

        assert!(!can_sort_to_indices(struct_array.data_type()));
        assert!(
            sort_to_indices(&struct_array, None, None)
                .err()
                .unwrap()
                .to_string()
                .contains("Sort not supported for data type")
        );

        let sort_columns = vec![SortColumn {
            values: Arc::new(struct_array.clone()) as ArrayRef,
            options: None,
        }];
        let sorted = lexsort(&sort_columns, None).unwrap();

        let expected_struct_array = Arc::new(StructArray::from(vec![
            (
                Arc::new(Field::new("b", DataType::Float32, false)),
                Arc::new(Float32Array::from(vec![-0.1, 1.0, 1.0, 3.5])) as ArrayRef,
            ),
            (
                Arc::new(Field::new("c", DataType::Int32, false)),
                Arc::new(Int32Array::from(vec![28, 31, 42, 19])) as ArrayRef,
            ),
        ])) as ArrayRef;

        assert_eq!(&sorted[0], &expected_struct_array);
    }

    /// A simple, correct but slower reference implementation.
    fn naive_partition(array: &BooleanArray) -> (Vec<u32>, Vec<u32>) {
        let len = array.len();
        let mut valid = Vec::with_capacity(len);
        let mut nulls = Vec::with_capacity(len);
        for i in 0..len {
            if array.is_valid(i) {
                valid.push(i as u32);
            } else {
                nulls.push(i as u32);
            }
        }
        (valid, nulls)
    }

    #[test]
    fn fuzz_partition_validity() {
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(0xF00D_CAFE);
        for _ in 0..1_000 {
            // build a random BooleanArray with some nulls
            let len = rng.random_range(0..512);
            let mut builder = BooleanBuilder::new();
            for _ in 0..len {
                if rng.random_bool(0.2) {
                    builder.append_null();
                } else {
                    builder.append_value(rng.random_bool(0.5));
                }
            }
            let array = builder.finish();

            // Test both implementations on the full array
            let (v1, n1) = partition_validity(&array);
            let (v2, n2) = naive_partition(&array);
            assert_eq!(v1, v2, "valid mismatch on full array");
            assert_eq!(n1, n2, "null  mismatch on full array");

            if len >= 8 {
                // 1) Random slice within the array
                let max_offset = len - 4;
                let offset = rng.random_range(0..=max_offset);
                let max_slice_len = len - offset;
                let slice_len = rng.random_range(1..=max_slice_len);

                // Bind the sliced ArrayRef to keep it alive
                let sliced = array.slice(offset, slice_len);
                let slice = sliced
                    .as_any()
                    .downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>()
                    .expect("slice should be a BooleanArray");

                let (sv1, sn1) = partition_validity(slice);
                let (sv2, sn2) = naive_partition(slice);
                assert_eq!(
                    sv1, sv2,
                    "valid mismatch on random slice at offset {offset} length {slice_len}",
                );
                assert_eq!(
                    sn1, sn2,
                    "null mismatch on random slice at offset {offset} length {slice_len}",
                );

                // 2) Ensure we test slices that start beyond one 64-bit chunk boundary
                if len > 68 {
                    let offset2 = rng.random_range(65..(len - 3));
                    let len2 = rng.random_range(1..=(len - offset2));

                    let sliced2 = array.slice(offset2, len2);
                    let slice2 = sliced2
                        .as_any()
                        .downcast_ref::<BooleanArray>()
                        .expect("slice2 should be a BooleanArray");

                    let (sv3, sn3) = partition_validity(slice2);
                    let (sv4, sn4) = naive_partition(slice2);
                    assert_eq!(
                        sv3, sv4,
                        "valid mismatch on chunk-crossing slice at offset {offset2} length {len2}",
                    );
                    assert_eq!(
                        sn3, sn4,
                        "null mismatch on chunk-crossing slice at offset {offset2} length {len2}",
                    );
                }
            }
        }
    }

    // A few small deterministic checks
    #[test]
    fn test_partition_edge_cases() {
        // all valid
        let array = BooleanArray::from(vec![Some(true), Some(false), Some(true)]);
        let (valid, nulls) = partition_validity(&array);
        assert_eq!(valid, vec![0, 1, 2]);
        assert!(nulls.is_empty());

        // all null
        let array = BooleanArray::from(vec![None, None, None]);
        let (valid, nulls) = partition_validity(&array);
        assert!(valid.is_empty());
        assert_eq!(nulls, vec![0, 1, 2]);

        // alternating
        let array = BooleanArray::from(vec![Some(true), None, Some(true), None]);
        let (valid, nulls) = partition_validity(&array);
        assert_eq!(valid, vec![0, 2]);
        assert_eq!(nulls, vec![1, 3]);
    }

    // Test specific edge case strings that exercise the 4-byte prefix logic
    #[test]
    fn test_specific_edge_cases() {
        let test_cases = vec![
            // Key test cases for lengths 1-4 that test prefix padding
            "a", "ab", "ba", "baa", "abba", "abbc", "abc", "cda",
            // Test cases where first 4 bytes are same but subsequent bytes differ
            "abcd", "abcde", "abcdf", "abcdaaa", "abcdbbb",
            // Test cases with length < 4 that require padding
            "z", "za", "zaa", "zaaa", "zaaab", // Empty string
            "",      // Test various length combinations with same prefix
            "test", "test1", "test12", "test123", "test1234",
        ];

        // Use standard library sort as reference
        let mut expected = test_cases.clone();
        expected.sort();

        // Use our sorting algorithm
        let string_array = StringArray::from(test_cases.clone());
        let indices: Vec<u32> = (0..test_cases.len() as u32).collect();
        let result = sort_bytes(
            &string_array,
            indices,
            vec![], // no nulls
            SortOptions::default(),
            None,
        );

        // Verify results
        let sorted_strings: Vec<&str> = result
            .values()
            .iter()
            .map(|&idx| test_cases[idx as usize])
            .collect();

        assert_eq!(sorted_strings, expected);
    }

    // Test sorting correctness for different length combinations
    #[test]
    fn test_length_combinations() {
        let test_cases = vec![
            // Focus on testing strings of length 1-4, as these affect padding logic
            ("", 0),
            ("a", 1),
            ("ab", 2),
            ("abc", 3),
            ("abcd", 4),
            ("abcde", 5),
            ("b", 1),
            ("ba", 2),
            ("bab", 3),
            ("babc", 4),
            ("babcd", 5),
            // Test same prefix with different lengths
            ("test", 4),
            ("test1", 5),
            ("test12", 6),
            ("test123", 7),
        ];

        let strings: Vec<&str> = test_cases.iter().map(|(s, _)| *s).collect();
        let mut expected = strings.clone();
        expected.sort();

        let string_array = StringArray::from(strings.clone());
        let indices: Vec<u32> = (0..strings.len() as u32).collect();
        let result = sort_bytes(&string_array, indices, vec![], SortOptions::default(), None);

        let sorted_strings: Vec<&str> = result
            .values()
            .iter()
            .map(|&idx| strings[idx as usize])
            .collect();

        assert_eq!(sorted_strings, expected);
    }

    // Test UTF-8 string handling
    #[test]
    fn test_utf8_strings() {
        let test_cases = vec![
            "a",
            "你",       // 3-byte UTF-8 character
            "你好",     // 6 bytes
            "你好世界", // 12 bytes
            "🎉",       // 4-byte emoji
            "🎉🎊",     // 8 bytes
            "café",     // Contains accent character
            "naïve",
            "Москва", // Cyrillic script
            "東京",   // Japanese kanji
            "한국",   // Korean
        ];

        let mut expected = test_cases.clone();
        expected.sort();

        let string_array = StringArray::from(test_cases.clone());
        let indices: Vec<u32> = (0..test_cases.len() as u32).collect();
        let result = sort_bytes(&string_array, indices, vec![], SortOptions::default(), None);

        let sorted_strings: Vec<&str> = result
            .values()
            .iter()
            .map(|&idx| test_cases[idx as usize])
            .collect();

        assert_eq!(sorted_strings, expected);
    }

    // Fuzz testing: generate random UTF-8 strings and verify sort correctness
    #[test]
    fn test_fuzz_random_strings() {
        let mut rng = StdRng::seed_from_u64(42); // Fixed seed for reproducibility

        for _ in 0..100 {
            // Run 100 rounds of fuzz testing
            let mut test_strings = Vec::new();

            // Generate 20-50 random strings
            let num_strings = rng.random_range(20..=50);

            for _ in 0..num_strings {
                let string = generate_random_string(&mut rng);
                test_strings.push(string);
            }

            // Use standard library sort as reference
            let mut expected = test_strings.clone();
            expected.sort();

            // Use our sorting algorithm
            let string_array = StringArray::from(test_strings.clone());
            let indices: Vec<u32> = (0..test_strings.len() as u32).collect();
            let result = sort_bytes(&string_array, indices, vec![], SortOptions::default(), None);

            let sorted_strings: Vec<String> = result
                .values()
                .iter()
                .map(|&idx| test_strings[idx as usize].clone())
                .collect();

            assert_eq!(
                sorted_strings, expected,
                "Fuzz test failed with input: {test_strings:?}"
            );
        }
    }

    // Helper function to generate random UTF-8 strings
    fn generate_random_string(rng: &mut StdRng) -> String {
        // Bias towards generating short strings, especially length 1-4
        let length = if rng.random_bool(0.6) {
            rng.random_range(0..=4) // 60% probability for 0-4 length strings
        } else {
            rng.random_range(5..=20) // 40% probability for longer strings
        };

        if length == 0 {
            return String::new();
        }

        let mut result = String::new();
        let mut current_len = 0;

        while current_len < length {
            let c = generate_random_char(rng);
            let char_len = c.len_utf8();

            // Ensure we don't exceed target length
            if current_len + char_len <= length {
                result.push(c);
                current_len += char_len;
            } else {
                // If adding this character would exceed length, fill with ASCII
                let remaining = length - current_len;
                for _ in 0..remaining {
                    result.push(rng.random_range('a'..='z'));
                    current_len += 1;
                }
                break;
            }
        }

        result
    }

    // Generate random characters (including various UTF-8 characters)
    fn generate_random_char(rng: &mut StdRng) -> char {
        match rng.random_range(0..10) {
            0..=5 => rng.random_range('a'..='z'), // 60% ASCII lowercase
            6 => rng.random_range('A'..='Z'),     // 10% ASCII uppercase
            7 => rng.random_range('0'..='9'),     // 10% digits
            8 => {
                // 10% Chinese characters
                let chinese_chars = ['你', '好', '世', '界', '测', '试', '中', '文'];
                chinese_chars[rng.random_range(0..chinese_chars.len())]
            }
            9 => {
                // 10% other Unicode characters (single `char`s)
                let special_chars = ['é', 'ï', '🎉', '🎊', 'α', 'β', 'γ'];
                special_chars[rng.random_range(0..special_chars.len())]
            }
            _ => unreachable!(),
        }
    }

    // Test descending sort order
    #[test]
    fn test_descending_sort() {
        let test_cases = vec!["a", "ab", "ba", "baa", "abba", "abbc", "abc", "cda"];

        let mut expected = test_cases.clone();
        expected.sort();
        expected.reverse(); // Descending order

        let string_array = StringArray::from(test_cases.clone());
        let indices: Vec<u32> = (0..test_cases.len() as u32).collect();
        let result = sort_bytes(
            &string_array,
            indices,
            vec![],
            SortOptions {
                descending: true,
                nulls_first: false,
            },
            None,
        );

        let sorted_strings: Vec<&str> = result
            .values()
            .iter()
            .map(|&idx| test_cases[idx as usize])
            .collect();

        assert_eq!(sorted_strings, expected);
    }

    // Stress test: large number of strings with same prefix
    #[test]
    fn test_same_prefix_stress() {
        let mut test_cases = Vec::new();
        let prefix = "same";

        // Generate many strings with the same prefix
        for i in 0..1000 {
            test_cases.push(format!("{prefix}{i:04}"));
        }

        let mut expected = test_cases.clone();
        expected.sort();

        let string_array = StringArray::from(test_cases.clone());
        let indices: Vec<u32> = (0..test_cases.len() as u32).collect();
        let result = sort_bytes(&string_array, indices, vec![], SortOptions::default(), None);

        let sorted_strings: Vec<String> = result
            .values()
            .iter()
            .map(|&idx| test_cases[idx as usize].clone())
            .collect();

        assert_eq!(sorted_strings, expected);
    }

    // Test limit parameter
    #[test]
    fn test_with_limit() {
        let test_cases = vec!["z", "y", "x", "w", "v", "u", "t", "s"];
        let limit = 3;

        let mut expected = test_cases.clone();
        expected.sort();
        expected.truncate(limit);

        let string_array = StringArray::from(test_cases.clone());
        let indices: Vec<u32> = (0..test_cases.len() as u32).collect();
        let result = sort_bytes(
            &string_array,
            indices,
            vec![],
            SortOptions::default(),
            Some(limit),
        );

        let sorted_strings: Vec<&str> = result
            .values()
            .iter()
            .map(|&idx| test_cases[idx as usize])
            .collect();

        assert_eq!(sorted_strings, expected);
        assert_eq!(sorted_strings.len(), limit);
    }
}